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LIBRARY 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


Class 


Betterment  Briefs 


A  Collection  of 

Published  Papers  on  Organized 

Industrial  Efficiency 


BY 

H.  W.   JACOBS 


OF   THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 

It  I  FOR  N^ 


NEW   YORK 

JOHN    WILEY    &    SONS 

LONDON:   CHAPMAN    &  HALL,   LIMITED 

1909 


Copyright,  1909 

BY 
H.  W.  JACOBS 


fche  fcrirtttifir  fJrrHB 

Kiibrrl  Bntntmanb  and  (tompamj 

5Jetn«0rk 


TO 

Sofjtt  MUUam  SCrnbrtrk 

A   LEADER   OF   MEN    AND    A   LEADER   IN   METHODS    WHO    HAS    THE 

RARE   QUALITY   OP    INFUSING    INTO    HIS   SUBORDINATES 

AN   ENTHUSIASTIC    CO-OPERATION    UNEQUALED 

IN   THE   INAUGURATION   OF   A   NEW 

ORDER   OF   THINGS 

ta 


BY   ITS   AUTHOR 

IN   RECOGNITION    OF   PECULIAR   INDEBTEDNESS    FOR    THE 

SUPPORT   AND   ENCOURAGEMENT   GIVEN   HIM   IN 

THE   PROSECUTION    OF   SUCH    A    WORK 

ON   A   LARGE   RAILWAY   SYSTEM 


PREFACE  TO  SECOND  EDITION. 


THE  nucleus  of  the  present  volume  is  a  series  of  four  articles 
published  by  Mr.  Jacobs  in  The  Engineering  Magazine  from  Septem- 
ber, 1906,  to  January,  1907,  under  the  title  "Organization  and 
Economy  in  the  Railway  Machine  Shop."  This  was  followed  in 
June  by  a  paper  on  "The  Square  Deal  to  the  Railway  Employee," 
and  concluded  a  year  later,  in  June,  1908,  by  a  discussion  entitled 
"Personalism  in  Railroading;  a  Study  of  Changing  Conditions." 

These  all  appeared  in  pamphlet  reprint  editions,  quickly  ex- 
hausted. Later  in  1908,  the  greater  part  of  the  work  was  reissued, 
somewhat  altered  in  form,  and  combined  with  other  papers  by  the 
same  author  which  had  been  published  from  time  to  time  in  The 
Railroad  Gazette  and  The  American  Engineer  and  Railroad  Journal, 
or  had  been  presented  before  various  professional  bodies.  The  entire 
issue  of  this  enlarged  volume,  entitled  "Betterment  Briefs,"  in  turn, 
was  soon  absorbed  in  private  and  general  circulation. 

Meanwhile  the  work  on  the  Santa  Fe  was  proceeding  to  the 
development  of  a  new  order — new,  not  only  to  the  road,  but  to  the 
ideals  of  railroad  operation  generally.  In  the  mechanical  and  stores' 
departments,  in  the  apprenticeship  system,  and  in  all  the  relation 
with  employees,  both  financial  and  friendly,  standards  were  being 
attained  which  made  the  Santa  Fe  a  center  of  observation  and  study 
for  railway  officials  throughout  the  country.  Both  inside  and  oufr- 
side  the  organization  in  which  Mr.  Jacobs  wras  directing  so  strong  a 


ii  Preface. 

motive  force,  there  was  need  for  a  logical  presentation  of  the  various 
aspects  and  activities  of  the  Betterment  work — a  presentation  which 
should  properly  correlate  the  several  influences  and  agencies  and 
show  them  in  their  proper  proportion  and  connection  with  one 
another. 

This  book  appears  as  the  fulfilment  of  the  need.  While  it  is 
recrystallized  from  a  portion  of  the  original  material,  it  is  a  segre- 
gation of  the  best  elements  contained  therein,  strengthened  and  am- 
plified by  a  great  store  of  new  matter  amply  sufficient  to  display 
the  present  status  of  Betterment  work  and  to  advance  its  fuller  develop- 
ment. It  has  been  prepared  at  the  very  focus  of  the  energies  with 
which  it  deals,  and  it  reflects  the  actualities  as  they  appear  in  the 
daily  prosecution  of  the  movement  for  higher  efficiency  and  better 
economy  in  the  conduct  of  a  great  railway.  Above  all,  it  expresses 
the  strong  vitality,  the  watchful  intensity,  the  wide  activity,  and 
the  energizing  personal  enthusiasm  of  its  author. 

CHARLES  BUXTON  GOING. 

EDITORIAL  ROOMS,  THE  ENGINEERING  MAGAZINE,  N.  Y. 
January  8.  1909. 


PREFACE   TO  FIRST   EDITION. 

THIS  volume,  which  the  author  presents  in  the  form  of  matter 
"printed,  not  published,"  is  a  rather  miscellaneous  collection  in  chro- 
nological sequence,  of  such  of  my  papers  and  others  on  the  new  move- 
ment for  the  scientific  betterment  of  American  railroading  as  have 
appeared  in  the  press  from  time  to  time,  dealing  with  those  features  of 
the  movement  with  which  the  writer  has  had  to  do. 

The  book,  as  an  exposition  of  what  has  been  done,  is  offered:  To 
those  friends  and  associates  who  have  been  in  sympathy  with  the 
ideals  therein  portrayed,  and  whose  interest  has  ofttimes  encouraged 
the  work  of  one  who  feels  more  confidence  in  the  handling  of  tools 
than  in  writing  about  them ;  to  those  others  who  may  desire  a  further 
acquaintance  with  the  methods  and  results  obtained  from  the  use  of 
these  ideals  in  practice;  and  to  those  who  may  be  somewhat  con- 
servatively skeptical,  but  who  will  perhaps  be  encouraged  in  the  ap- 
plication of  these  principles  by  their  demonstrated  practical  soundness. 

It  is  fitting  that  I  should  make  due  acknowledgment  to  Mr.  A.  W. 
Whiteford  (present  superintendent  of  the  Sayre  shops  of  the  Lehigh 
Valley  Railroad)  and  to  the  following  members  of  my  staff :  Mr.  Raffe 
Emerson,  Mr.  C.  J.  Morrison,  Mr.  Harry  Muchnic,  Mr.  H.  H.  Lanning, 
and  Mr.  B.  W.  Benedict,  who  have  assisted  me  in  this  work,  and  who 
have  given  their  interest  and  spare  time  in  furthering  its  various 
features.  Other  acknowledgments  are  due  to  Mr.  Harrington  Emer- 
son and  Mr.  Clive  Hastings,  for  constructive  criticism. 

H.  W.  JACOBS. 

TOFEKA,  KAS.,  February  1,  1908 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 
COMMERCIAL  TOOL  METHODS  IN  RAILROAD  SHOPS 11 

IMPROVED  DEVICES  FOR  RAILROAD  SHOPS 21 

HIGH-SPEED  STEEL  IN  RAILROAD  SHOPS 35 

PRACTICAL  ADVICE  TO  COLLEGE  MEN 59 

ORGANIZATION  AND  EFFICIENCY  IN  THE  RAILWAY  MACHINE  SHOP 67 

I.  Specializing  and  Centralizing  the  Operations  and  Equipment 69 

II.  The  General  Aspects  of  Standardization 82 

III.  Centralization  and  Balance  of  Machine-Tool  Equipment  on  an 

Entire  Railroad 107 

IV.  Standardization  of  the  Small-Tool  Equipment 139 

V.  Erecting-Shop  Economies 155 

THE  RELATION  BETWEEN  THE  MECHANICAL  AND  STORE  DEPARTMENTS....    171 

SHOP  EFFICIENCY 184 

GENERAL  TOOL  SYSTEM,  A.  T.  &  S.  F.  RY 204 

LOCOMOTIVE  REPAIR  COSTS 223 

THE  SQUARE  DEAL  TO  THE  RAILWAY  EMPLOYEE..  .   233 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Page. 

ABRASIVE  WHEEL  STANDS,  STANDARD 212 

Am  DRUM  HOIST,  PNEUMATIC 26,  27 

AIR  DRUMS,  OLD  METHOD  OF  RAISING 25 

AMOUNTS  OF  STEEL  IN  OLD  AND  NEW  LATHE  TOOLS Ill,  112 

ANGLE  COCK  GRINDING  MACHINE 32 

ANGLE  DEVICES  FOR  DRILLING  IN  CLOSE  QUARTERS 80,  205 

ATTRACTIVE  RAILROAD  SHOP  YARDS 235 

BALL  JOINT  REAMER  FOR  STEAM  PIPE  JOINTS 89,  90 

BELT  FASTENINGS,  GOOD  AND  BAD 121 

BLOCK-AND-TACKLE,  STANDARD  MOTOR 206 

BONUS  CURVE 186 

BORING  MILL  WITH  CHAIN  DRIVE 1 37 

BORING  MILL,  CYLINDER,  EVOLUTION  OF 125,  130,  211 

BORIXG  TOOL,  OLD  STYLE 84 

BOWLING  ALLEY  IN  RECREATION  HALL,  NEEDLES 249 

BRAKE  SHOE  KEY  FORGING  MACHINE 71 

BRAKE  SHOE  KEY  SHEARING  MACHINE 72 

BUSHING,  CYLINDER,  OLD  AND  NEW  PATTERNS 118 

BUSHING,  HYDRAULIC  EXTRACTOR  FOR  PISTON  VALVE 102 

BUSHINGS,  MILLING  PORTS  IN  PISTON  VALVE,  OLD  METHOD 97 

BUSHINGS,   MILLING  PORTS  IN  PISTON  VALVE,  NEW  METHOD 31 

BUSHING,  MILLING  DEVICE  FOR  PISTON  VALVE 31,  98 

BUSHINGS,   REAMER  FOR  EXTENDED  PISTON  ROD 85 

CARBON  AND  ALLOY  STEEL,  TESTS  OF 53,  57,  1 09 

CARBON  STEEL  TOOLS  SCRAPPED 112 

CASE  FOR  TEMPLATES,  ETC.,  IN  TOOL-ROOM 144 

CENTERING  MACHINE  BUILT  IN  SHOPS 114 

CHAIN  DRIVE  ON  BORING  MILL 137 

CHIPS  REMOVED  BY  HIGH-SPEED  TOOLS 134 

CHIPS  REMOVED  FROM  MAIN  RODS  ON  PLANER 50,  58 

CHUCK  FOR  FLAT  DRILLS 143 

CHUCK,  SHOE  AND  WEDGE  FOR  PLANER 14 

CLEARANCE  CARD,  TOOL  BREAKAGE 217 

COMPARATIVE  COST  OF  TURNING  DRIVING  WHEEL  TIRES 53 

COMPARISON  OF  METAL  REMOVED  BY  DIFFERENT  STEELS 56 

COMPARISON  OF  OLD  AND  NEW  WHEEL  LATHE  TOOLS 47 

COMPOUND  MILLING  CUTTER  FOR  SHOES  AND    WEDGES 63 

COST  OF  LOCOMOTIVE  REPAIRS  PER  ROAD-UNIT 225 

COST  OF  LOCOMOTIVE  MATERIAI 229 

CROSSHEAD  AND  PISTON  FIT  REAMERS,  STANDARD 151,  152,  208 

CROSSHEAD  JIG  FOR  BABBITTING 28 

CUTTER,  FLUE  HOLE 23,  86 

CYLINDER  BORING  MILL,  EVOLUTION  OF 125,  130,  217 

CYLINDER  BUSHING,  OLD  AND  NEW  PATTERN  OF 118 

CYLINDER,  CYLINDER  HEAD,  AND  STEAM  CHEST  JIGS 17 

CYLINDER  HEAD  STUDS,  TEMPLATE  FOR 76 

DIAGRAM  SHOWING  METAL  REMOVED  BY  VARIOUS  STEELS 56 

DIVISION  OFFICES  AT  NEEDLES 239 

DRILLING,  ANGLE  DEVICES  FOR  CLOSE  QUARTERS 80,  205 

DRILLING  TEMPLATE  FOR  CYLINDER  HEAD  STUDS 76 

DRILLS,  EFFICIENCY  OF  FLAT  AND  TWIST  COMPARED 110 

[7] 


8  List  of  Illustrations. 

DRILL,  HIGH  SPEED  FLAT,  AND  CHUCK 143 

DRILL  PRESS  WITH  FEED  CONE  PULLEY  INCREASED 41 

DRIVING  Box  PLANER  JIG 34 

DRIVING  Box  SLING  FOR  USE  WITH  CRANE 157 

DRIVING  GEARS  FOR  PLANER,  IRON  AND  STEEL : .  ^ 134 

DRIVING  WHEELS,  COST  OF  TURNING 53 

ECCENTRIC  MANDREL  FOR  LATHE 33 

ECCENTRIC  MILLING  JIG 13 

EFFICIENCY  OF  FLAT  AND  TWIST  DRILLS 110 

EFFICIENCY  RECORD  OF  GOOD  WORKMAN 185 

EFFICIENCY  RECORD  OF  POOR  WORKMAN 187 

EFFICIENCY  RECORD  OF  SPASMODIC  WORKMAN 188 

EFFICIENCY  RECORD  OF  DRY-PIPE  GANG 191 

EFFICIENCY  RECORD  OF  REPAIR  TRACK 1 92 

EFFICIENCY  RECORD  OF  SHOP 195 

EVOLUTION  OF  CYLINDER  BORING  MILL 125,  130,  21 1 

EXCESS  MACHINERY  FROM  DIVISION  SHOPS 219 

EXCESS  TOOLS  AND  APPLIANCES  FROM  DIVISION  SHOPS 220 

EXTENDED  PISTON  RODS 45 

FASTENING,  BELT,  GOOD  AND  BAD 121 

FEED  CONE  PULLEYS  ON  LATHE  COMPARED 40 

FEED  CONE  PULLEYS  ON  BOLT  LATHE  INCREASED 39,  135 

FINISHED  PARTS  FROM  CENTRAL  SHOP 92,  95 

FLAT  DRILL,  HIGH  SPEED,  AND  CHUCK 143 

FLATTER,  STANDARD  BLACKSMITH 207 

FLUE-HOLE  CUTTER 23,  86 

FLUE  ROLLERS,  STANDARD 91 

FORGING  MACHINE,  BRAKE  SHOE  KEY 71 

FORM  FOR  CHARGES  TO  REPAIRS  OF  MACHINERY 218 

FORM  FOB  PENSION  APPLICATION 255 

FORM  FOR  RECOMMENDATION  FOR  PENSION 257 

FRAME  PLANER  AND  DRIVING  GEAR -.  .   133,  134 

GEARING  FOR  FOUR-SPINDLE  MILLING  DEVICE 98 

GRINDING  MACHINE  FOR  ANGLE  COCK 32 

GYMNASIUM,  RECREATION  HALL,  NEEDLES 243 

HARRIMAN  LINES,  STANDARD  LOCOMOTIVES 83 

HIGH-SPEED  TOOL-HOLDERS  AND   TOOLS 122 

HOLDERS,  TOOL,   FOR  WHEEL  LATHE 24,  111 

HYDRAULIC  PISTON  VALVE  BUSHING  EXTRACTOR 102 

INCREASED  DRIVING  PULLEYS  ON  PLANER 48 

INCREASED  FEED  CONE  PULLEYS  ON  LATHE 39,  135 

INNER  COURT  OF  RECREATION  HALL  AT  NEEDLES 242 

ISOLATED  WARD  IN-  HOSPITAL  AT  TOPEKA 252 

JIG  FOR  BABBITTING  CROSSHEADS 28 

JIG  FOR   CYLINDER  HEADS    AND   STEAM  CHESTS 17 

JIG  FOR  PLANING  DRIVING  BOXES 34 

JIG  FOR  ECCENTRIC  MILLING 13 

KNUCKLE-PIN  HOLE  REAMERS 79 

LATHE,  AXLE,  RECONSTRUCTED  FOR  HIGH-SPEED  STEEL 46,  136 

LATHE,  BOLT,  RECONSTRUCTED  FOR  HIGH-SPEED  STEEL 39.  135 

LATHE,  RECONSTRUCTED  FOR  HIGH-SPEED  STEEL 46 

LATHE,  WITH  FEED  PULLEYS  INCREASED 135,  136 

LATHE  TOOLS,  OLD  AND  NEW  COMPARED 122 

LATHE  STEADY  REST,  RE-DESIGNED 38 

LOCOMOTIVE  MATERIAL,  COST  OF 229 

LOCOMOTIVE  REPAIRS,  COST  OF  PER  ROAD-UNIT 225 

LOCOMOTIVE  REPAIR  CHARGES,  REDUCTION  OF 226 

LOCOMOTIVES,  STANDARD  HARRIMAN  LINES 83 

MACHINE,  CENTERING,  BUILT  IN  SHOPS 114 


List  of  Illustrations.  9 

MAIN  RODS  ON  PLANER,  SHOWING  CHIPS  REMOVED 50,  58 

MATERIAL.  FINISHED  IN  CENTRAL  SHOP 92,  95 

MATERIAL,  LOCOMOTIVE,  COST  OF 229 

MATERIAL  PLATFORM  AND  RACKS 173,  179 

MAIN  HOSPITAL  AT  TOPEKA 251 

METAL  REMOVED  BV  DIFFERENT  STEELS 56 

MILLING  CUTTER  WITH  INSERTED  BLADES 91 

MILLING  CUTTER,  COMPOUND,  FOR  SHOES  AND  WEDGES 63 

MILLING  CUTTERS,  REAMERS  AND  HIGH-SPEED  TOOLS 61 

MILLING  CUTTER  FOR  SHOES  AND  WEDGES 62,  63 

MILLING  DEVICE  FOR  PISTON  VALVE  BUSHINGS 31 

MILLING  MACHINE,  SNAP  RING 42 

MILLING  PORTS  IN  PISTON  VALVE  BUSHINGS,  OLD  METHOD 97 

MILLING  PORTS  IN  PISTON  VALVE  BUSHINGS,  NEW  METHOD 31,  98 

MOJAVE  INDIANS,  WIPERS  AND  SWEEPERS 236 

MOTION  PICTURES  OF  RAILROAD  OPERATIONS 158 

NURSES'  PARLOR  IN  TOPEKA  HOSPITAL 254 

OLD  STYLE  BORING  TOOL 84 

OPERATING  ROOM  AND  WARD,  TOPEKA  HOSPITAL 253 

PARTS  FINISHED  IN  CENTRAL  SHOP 92,  95 

PERFORMANCE  OF  ALLOY  AND  CARBON  STEELS 57 

PISTON  FIT  AND  CROSSHEAD  REAMERS 151,  152,  208 

PISTON  ROD,  EXTENDED 45 

PISTON  ROD  LATHE 46 

PISTON  VALVE  BUSHING,  MILLING  DEVICE  FOR 31,  98 

PLANER  FRAME  AND  DRIVING  GEAR 133,  134 

PLANER,  INCREASED  PULLEYS  FOR 48,  49 

PLANER,   RECONSTRUCTED  FOR  HIGH-SPEED  STEEL 133,  134 

PNEUMATIC  AIR  DRUM  HOIST 26,  27 

PORTAL  OF  RECREATION  HALL,  NEEDLES 240 

PORTICOS  AND  VERANDAS,  RECREATION  HALL,  NEEDLES 24 1 

PRODUCT  OF  BRAKE  SHOE  KEY  FORGING  MACHINE 75 

PUNCHES  AND  DIES,  STANDARD 147,  148 

RACK,  TOOL,  STANDARD 138,  174 

RAILROAD  Y.  M.  C.  A.  BUILDING,  TOPEKA 256 

RAISING  AIR  DRUMS,  OLD  METHOD 25 

READING  ROOM  IN  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  TOPEKA 259 

READING-ROOMS,  TYPICAL,  FOR  EMPLOYEES 237 

REAMERS  AND  CUTTERS  MADE  IN  TOOL- ROOM 61 

REAMER  FOR  EXTENDED  PISTON  ROD  BUSHINGS 85 

REAMER  WITH  INSERTED  BLADES 91 

REAMER,  KNUCKLE- PIN  HOLE 79 

REAMER,  CROSSHEAD  AND  PISTON  FIT 151,  152 

REAMER,  BALL  JOINT  FOR  STEAM  PIPES 89,  90 

REAMERS,  OLD  STYLE  CROSSHEAD 153 

RECONSTRUCTED  AXLE  LATHE 46,  136 

RECONSTRUCTED  BOLT  LATHE 39,  135 

RECONSTRUCTED  DRILL  PRESS 41 

RECONSTRUCTED  PLANER 133,  134 

RECREATION  HALL  AT  NEEDLES 238 

REDUCTION  OF  LOCOMOTIVE  REPAIR  CHARGES 226 

RE-DESIGNED  STEADY  REST  FOR  LATHE 38 

REPAIR  CHARGES,  LOCOMOTIVE,  REDUCTION  OF 226 

REPAIRS  AND  RENEWALS  OF  MACHINERY,  FORM  FOR 218 

REPAIRS,  LOCOMOTIVE,  COST  OF  PER  ROAD-UNIT 225 

ROLLERS,  FLUE,  STANDARD '. 91 

SANITARY  WASH  AND  LOCKER  ROOM,  TOPEKA  SHOPS 229 

SECTION  OF  PISTON  ROD  SHOWING  METAL  REMOVED 46 

SHEARING  AND  BENDING  MACHINE  BRAKE  SHOE    KEY.  .  72 


10  List  of  Illustrations. 


SHOE  AND  WEDGE  CHUCK  FOR  PLANER 14 

SHOE  AND  WEDGE,  COMPOUND  MILLING  CUTTER 63 

SHOE  AND  WEDGE.  MILLING  CUTTER 62 

SHOP  MATERIAL  PLATFORM 173,  179 

SHOP  YARDS  AT  NEEDLES 235,  245 

SLING  FOR  DRIVING  BOXES 157 

SMALL  PARTS  FINISHED  IN  CENTRAL  SHOP 92,  95 

SNAP  RING  MILLING  MACHINE 42 

STANDARD  ABRASIVE  WHEEL  STANDS 212 

STANDARD  BLACKSMITH  FLATTER 207 

STANDARD  CROSSHEAD  REAMERS 151,  152,  208 

STANDARD  FLUE  ROLLERS 91 

STANDARD  LOCOMOTIVES,  HARRIMAN  LINES 83 

STANDARD  MOTOR  BLOCK-AND-TACKLE 206 

STANDARD  PUNCHES  AND  DIES 147,  148 

STANDARD  TOOL  RACK  IN  STOREHOUSE 138,  174 

STANDARD  SHAPES  OF  MACHINE  TOOLS 1 17 

STEAM  CHEST  JIGS 17 

STEADY  REST  FOR  LATHE,  RE-DESIGNED 38 

STEEL,  ALLOY  AND  CARBON,  PERFORMANCES  OF 57 

STEEL  AND  CAST  IRON  PINIONS  FOR  LATHE 37 

STOCK  BOOK,  TOOL 214 

STOCKS,  COUPLINGS,  PUNCHES  AND  DIES 143,  144 

STORAGE  PLATFORM  AND  RACKS 173 

SWIMMING  POOL,  RECREATION  HALL,  NEEDLES 214 

TEMPLATE  FOR  DRILLING  CYLINDER  HEAD  STUDS 76 

TEMPORARY  HOSPITAL  IN  DESERT 250 

TEST  OF  TWIST  DRILLS  OF  CARBON  AND  ALLOY  STEELS 110 

TEST  OF  CARBON  AND  ALLOY  STEEL 53,  57,  109 

TEST  RACK  FOR  TRIPLE  VALVES 32 

TOOL  BREAKAGE  CLEARANCE  CARD 217 

TOOL-HARDENING  ROOM 213 

TOOL-HOLDERS  FOR   WHEEL  LATHE  TOOLS 24,  111 

TOOL-HOLDERS   FOR  HIGH-SPEED  TOOLS 122 

TOOLS,  LATHE 1 17 

TOOLS,  MACHINE,  STANDARD  SHAPES 117 

TOOL- ROOM,  TYPICAL  RAILROAD 10 1 

TOOL-ROOM  CASE  FOR  TEMPLATES 144 

TOOL-ROOM  RACK  FOR  SMALL  TOOLS 144 

TOOL-STOCK  BOOK 214 

TOOLS,  WHEEL  TOOLS  COMPARED 47,  111,  1 12 

TWIST  DRILLS,  TESTS  OF  ALLOY  AND  CARBON 1 10 

TYPICAL  RAILROAD  TOOL-ROOM 10 1 

TYPICAL  READING  ROOMS  FOR  EMPLOYEES 237 

WHEEL  LATHE  TOOL-HOLDER  AND  TOOLS 24,  111 

WHEEL  LATHE  TOOL-HOLDERS  FOR  SHIPMENT 113 

WHEEL  LATHE  TOOLS,  OLD  AND  NEW.  COMPARED 47,  111,  112 

WIRE-SCREENED  BUNGALOW  AT  NEEDLES 258 

WRITING  AND  READING  ROOM  AT  NEEDLES 246 


BETTERMENT  BRIEFS. 


COMMERCIAL  TOOL  METHODS  IN  RAILROAD  SHOPS. 


THE   success  of  the  -  modern    manufacturing    industries    depends 
greatly  on  their  ability  to  perfect  labor-saving  devices  to  cheapen 
the  output  of  each   of  their  different  departments.     Up-to-date 
managers  and  superintendents   of  manufacturing  concerns  are  alive 
to  this  vital  point,  and  see  to  it  that  they  have  at  the  heads  of  their 
various  departments,    and  particularly  in  the  case  of  their  tool  depart- 
ment, the  very  best  man  that  it  is  possible  for  them  to  secure  for  the 
work. 

As  a  general  thing,  railroad  shops  do  not  devote  much  attention 
to  the  tool-making  question,  as  private  concerns  of  similar  character 
do.  This  is  due  in  a  great  measure  to  the  fact  that,  in  the  words  of  a 
well-known  superintendent  of  motive  power,  the  railroads  "are  in  the 
transportation  business  and  not  in  the  manufacturing 
tions  in  business."  While  this  may  be  to  a  certain  extent  true,  it 

Railroad  joes  not  justify  the  utter  disregard  of  the  tool  depart- 

ment that  some  railroads  seem  to  have.  It  is  not  the 
intention  to  cast  any  reflection  on  any  member  of  the  great  family 
of  railroad  officials,  but  it  is  nevertheless  a  lamentable  fact  that  in 
the  majority  of  cases  the  tool-room  is  given  but  scant  attention.  In 
fact,  there  are  cases,  known  to  the  writer,  of  good-sized  railroad  shops, 
employing  as  high  as  fifty  full -pay  machinists,  which  have  absolutely 
no  tool -room  whatever;  the  only  approach  to  a  tool -room  is  possibly 
a  wrench  rack  in  some  out-of-the-way  corner,  and  what  few  special 
tools  each  individual  machinist  can  keep  in  his  own  locker, — although 
the  more  he  can  steal  from  another  man  the  more  he  will  have  for  his 
own.  There  can  be  no  denying  the  fact  that  work  done  in  shops  of 
this  sort  must  of  necessity  be  done  in  the  crudest  manner  possible,  with 
accompanying  disadvantages  to  the  motive-power  equipment  and 

output. 

MI  ^ 


12  Betterment  Briefs. 

It  is  not  to  be  insinuated  that  the  machine  shops  of  our  railroads  of 
today  are  not  in  charge  of  capable  men ;  the  fact  is,  some  of  as  good 
shop  managers  as  can  be  found  anywhere  in  the  country  are  in  charge 

-  .of  our  railroad  shops,  but  a  great  number  of  them  have 

Superiority  of  . 

Modern  Tools  been  brought  up  along  railroad  lines  exclusively,  and  they 
and  Methods,  unconsciously  see  things  from  the  older  railroad  point  of 
view  only.  The  effect  of  this  condition  of  affairs  may  be  seen  by  con- 
sidering a  few  specific  cases  in  the  machine  shop : 

For  instance,  it  would  never  take  a  lathe  man  three  hours  to  bolt 
a  crosshead  to  a  face-plate  on  a  lathe  and  rebore  it  for  a  pin  fit  if  the 
shop  had  a  full  equipment  of  standard  piston  fit  and  crosshead  reamers.1 

It  would  not  take  one  hour  to  tap  out  eccentrics  by  hand  if  the 
shop  had  an  automatic  tapping  device  to  tap  them  in  the  drill  press, 
by  which  the  work  could  be  done  in  five  minutes. 

It  would  not  take  four  hours  to  bend  the  arm  of  a  tumbling-shaft 
and  then  swing  it  in  the  lathe  to  be  able  to  turn  the  bearings  if  they  had 
a  tumbling-shaft  turning  device  to  do  the  work. 

In  place  of  taking  eighteen  hours  to  plane  ten  eccentric  halves  by 
bolting  on  the  planer  bed,  thirty  of  them  ought  to  be  done  in  ten  hours 
with  a  special  eccentric-planing  jig. 

It  would  not  take  two  hours  with  a  bar  and  cutters  on  a  drill  press 
to  true  out  knuckle-pin  bearings  if  the  shop  had  reamers  with  which 
the  same  work  could  be  done  in  fifteen  minutes  and  a  standard  hole 
made.2 

Where  it  would  take  one  hour  to  turn  a  driving  brass  with  an  old- 
style  flange  and  nut  mandrel,  three  of  them  could  be  done  in  the  same 
time  by  using  a  mandrel  with  set-screws  to  locate  them  in  position, 
and  thus  not  require  truing  up,  and  cupped  set-screws  to  hold  them 
tight. 

A  special  chuck  for  shoes  and  wedges,  whereby  the  work  could  have 
the  benefit  of  all  the  heads  on  a  planer  at  once,  would  be  the  means 
of  reducing  the  time  by  at  least  one-half  over  the  method  of  using  only 
one  head  at  the  time. 

It  would  not  take  one  hour  to  cut  off  a  set  of  piston  packing  rings 
if  the  shop  had  a  gang  cutter,  whereby  the  same  work  could  be  done  in 
ten  minutes. 

These  are  but  a  few  examples  of  the  many  cases  that  could  be  cited 
from  actual  experience  to  show  the  difference  between  a  shop  with  an 

1  See  description  of  Standard  Crosshead  Reamers,  p.  150. 

2  See  description  of  Standard  Knuckle  Joint  Reamers,  p.  78. 


Commercial  Tool  Methods  in  Railroad  Shops.        13 


FIG.  1 — PHOTOGRAPH  SHOWING  A  SPECIAL  ECCENTRIC  JIG  AND  MILLING  AT- 
TACHMENT FOR  SLAB  MILLING  MACHINE  FOR  FINISHING  JOINTS  OF  ECCENTRIC 
HALVES.  BY  THIS  METHOD  THE  TIME  FOR  FINISHING  THE  JOINT  OF  ONE  ECCENTRIC 
HALF  WAS  REDUCED  FROM  1  HOUR  AND  45  MINUTES  TO  20  MINUTES. 


Jute  EltYat/on  of  Jig 

•  i  o~ 4- 1  •" 

—i'— I— « i"H        [— « 


End  Elevat/on  tfJ,$  showing  facnfna  </j/>atf,t>n 


7>/r/o/^'1  /^A  Drilling  Stop  Pm  Holes 


H1 


Eccentrics  in  Jig  ready  fcr  Mi/lmf 


TIG.  2 — ELEVATIONS  AND  GENERAL  PLAN  OF  SPECIAL  MILLING  JIG  FOR  FIN- 
ISHING THE  JOINT  ON  ECCENTRIC  HALVES.  THE  CASTINGS  ARE  HELD  IN  THE  PROPER 
POSITION  BY  STEEL  PINS  INSERTED  IN  HOLES  DRILLED  IN  THE  ECCENTRIC  HALVES 
A  DRILLING  JIG  INSURES  ACCURACY  IN  THE  LOCATION  OF  THE  HOLES. 


14 


Betterment  Briefs. 


FIG.  3 — SPECIAL  CHUCK  FOR  PLANING  12  SHOES  OR  WEDGES  AT  ONE  TIME  AS 
SUGGESTED  BY  CHIEF  SHOP  PIECE  WORK  INSPECTOR  FOR  CHEAPENING  THE  PRICE 
OF  THE  OUTPUT. 


Commercial  Tool  Methods  in  Railroad  Shops.         15 

equipment  of  modern  tools  and  one  in  which  the  tool-room  end  is  not 
given  the  fullest  attention.  A  closer  standardizing  of  parts,  made  pos- 
sible by  complete  sets  of  reamers,  drilling- jigs,  templates, 
tion  of  Tools  etc.,  for  certain  lines  of  work,  such  as  rod  knuckle-joint 
and  Parts.  pins,  crosshead  pins,  etc.,  would  be  the  means  of  re- 
moving an  immense  amount  of  extra  labor  time,  worry  and  incon- 
venience, to  say  nothing  of  the  great  reduction  of  maintenance.1 

It  is  possible  to  replace  a  broken  part  of  a  bicycle,  automobile, 
typewriter,  etc.,  of  any  of  the  standard  makes,  by  simply  sending  to 
the  factory  and  specifying  only  the  number  and  names  of  the  parts 
required.  Why  should  not  this  be  true,  to  a  great  extent,  also,  of 
locomotives?  Just  imagine  the  great  saving  it  would  bring  about,  and 
resulting  improvement  in  all  departments  if  any  roundhouse  foreman 
along  the  line  were  able  to  send  to  headquarters  for  any  broken  part 
and  know  for  a  certainty  that  it  could  be  applied  without  many  hours 
of  fitting.2 

The  question  is,  however,  how  can  this  state  of  affairs  be  best 
brought  about?  In  the  first  place,  a  complete  set  of  jigs  and  templates 
should  be  kept  on  hand  by  the  tool-room  foreman  for  all  vital  parts  of 
the  running  gear,  rods,  etc.,  that  are  more  liable  to  become  broken  or 
thrown  out  of  place ;  by  this  effort,  duplicate  parts  are  made  possible. 
Then  an  accurate  record  should  be  kept  of  all  of  these ;  they  should  be 
catalogued,  indexed,  and  filed  in  such  a  manner  as  to  render  it  possible 
for  anyone,  even  a  stranger,  to  walk  into  the  tool-room  and  find  easily 
and  quickly  anything  he  might  want  in  this  line.  When  new  classes 
of  engines  are  bought  it  should  be  the  tool-room  foreman's  duty  to  see 
that  the  equipment  of  jigs  is  brought  right  up  to  date  for  all  these  new 
appliances. 

With  an  accurate  and  complete  set  of  jigs  and  templates,  duplicate 
parts  could  always  be  kept  on  order.  This  is  the  main  point — to  be 
able  to  furnish  the  parts.  The  application  is  of  secondary  importance . 
In  order  to  do  this  with  the  greatest  hope  of  success,  however,  the 
scope  of  the  tool-room  should  be  enlarged.  It  should  not  only  embrace 
Practical  ^e  ma^mS  and  keeping  of  labor-saving  devices,  standard 

Tool-room         measuring   tools,  etc.,  but  under  its  jurisdiction  should 
Methods.  come  the  tempering,  drawing,  hardening,  annealing,  etc., 

of  all  the  drills,  taps,  reamers,  etc.,  that  are  needed  in  this  department. 

JSee  Standardization  of  Small-Tool  Equipment,  p.  139. 

2  See  p.  82  for  Methods  of  Standardization  and  List  of  Standard  Locomotive  Parts. 

sSee  Templates,  illustrated  and  described  on  pp.  17,  76. 


16  Betterment  Briefs. 

This  should  be  so,  for  the  reason  that  it  is  much  easier  and  far  more 
certain  for  the  man  who  has  watched  and  worked  up  a  piece  of  steel,  from 
the  rough  forging  to  the  finished  article,  to  be  able  to  tell  how  it  will 
set  in  the  fire  than  it  is  for  the  man  at  the  fire  who  has  had  no  chance  to 
observe  the  peculiar  properties  of  this  certain  piece  through  its  differ- 
ent stages  of  transformation.  This  is  not  idle  talk  nor  mere  theory, 
for  it  is  an  established  fact  that  even  among  the  same  makes  of  steel 
there  is  always  a  certain  amount  of  variation  as  to  its  action  and  de- 
velopment. Each  individual  tool  has  to  be  handled  as  a  separate  and 
distinct  piece,  to  get  the  very  best  results,  and  the  only  sure  way  to 
tell  accurately  how  to  handle  it  is  to  watch  it  closely  from  the  start  to 
the  finish. 

As  far  as  possible,  all  manufactured  parts  should  be  made  on  the 
place,  presumably  at  the  largest  and  best  equipped  plant  on  the  sys- 
tem. This  would  enable  one  set  of  jigs  and  standards  to  do  all  the 
work,  and  thereby  do  away  with  the  greater  or  less  lia- 
Manufacture  bility  of  mistakes.  It  is  not  possible,  however,  to  do  this 
of  Standard  in  all  things,  and  duplicate  sets  of  jigs  should  thus  be 
kept  at  the  most  important  points.  This  would  require 
a  man  to  look  after  these  equipments  and  see  that  they  were  kept 
exactly  the  same  at  all  points,  something  in  the  same  manner  that 
all  the  manufacturing  concerns  in  the  country  keep  up  their  gauges. 
They,  as  a  rule,  have  a  man  or  a  number  of  men  who  do  nothing  else 
but  see  that  the  gauges  are  kept  to  an  accurate  standard  ;  in  fact, 
they  have  this  work  systematized  to  such  a  point  that  in  many  of 
them  the  temperature  of  the  gauge-room  is  never  allowed  to  vary 
from  one  year's  end  to  another. 

There  is  no  necessity  of  this,  however,  on  a  railway  system,  in  gen- 
eral repair  work,  as  this  work  does  not  require  anything  like  this  de- 
gree of  accuracy.  This  work  can  be  done  by  some  one  in  connection 
with  other  work.  A  good,  all-round  practical  man  would  fill  the  bill, 
whose  duty  it  would  be  to  see  that  these  templates,  jigs, 
etc*>  no^  on^v  are  kept  UP  ^°  an  absolute  standard,  but 
that  they  are  used  in  shop  practice  to  the  best  advan- 
tage. He  should,  in  fact,  be  a  man  who  could  not  only  maintain  and 
apply  these  ideas,  but  could  also  create  and  develop  new  ones  as  the 
occasion  required. 

In  connection  with  this  work,  he  could  see  that  the  tool  steels  are 
handled  to  the  best  advantage,  not  only  in  the  actual  use  on  the  ma- 
chine, but  in  the  storing,  keeping,  checking,  tempering,  grinding,  etc. 


Commercial  Tool  Methods  in  Railroad  Shops.        17 


FIG.  4 — CYLINDER,  CYLINDER  HEAD  AND  STEAM  CHEST  JIGS  FOR  DRILLING  STUD 
HOLES  ACCURATELY  FOR  INSURING  INTERCHANGEABILITY  OF  PARTS. 


Commercial  Tool  Methods  in  Railroad  Shops.         19 

The  writer  has  been  in  shops  where  a  special  high-speed  steel  was  being 
used  that  cost  70  cents  a  pound,  and  the  shop  was  not  getting  any  better 
results  than  when  using  the  old  carbon  steels.  This  was  due  simply  to 
the  fact  that  there  was  no  one  there  whose  particular  duty  it  was  to 
look  after  this ;  some  of  the  men  in  charge  did  not  know  and  some  did 
not  care,  and  so  the  thing  went  on,  with  no  good  results  for  anyone, 
and  only  added  expense  to  the  company. 

In  this  connection,  the  question  can  be  asked,  and  very  properly, 
too:  Of  what  use  is  an  up-to-date  tool  system  if  it  is  not  kept  up? 
The  answer  is  emphatically,  None!  But  another  question  can  also  be 
asked,  and  that  is:  What  reason  is  there  that  it  cannot  be  kept  up? 
And  the  answer  is,  also — None!  The  only  thing  that  needs  a  remedy, 
and,  in  fact,  the  only  weak  spot  possible  in  a  modern  and  up-to-date 
tool  system,  is  lack  of  interest  or  lack  of  knowledge  among  those  di- 
rectly connected  with  it.  In  most  cases  the  lack  of  knowledge  is 
responsible  for  the  decline  of  a  tool  system.1 

It  is  admitted  by  all  interested  that  in  the  last  decade  no  such  re- 
markable change  of  shop  methods  and  appliances  has  been  brought 
Hi jrh-speed  about  by  any  one  movement  as  by  the  introduction  of 
Steel  in  Rail-  the  new  high-speed  steels.  The  changes  are  so  great  and 
road  Shops.  SQ  many  that  it  ig  impOSSible  for  the  best  of  foremen,  let 
alone  the  average  of  the  rank  and  file,  to  keep  pace  with  the  move- 
ment and  see  that  everything  is  keyed  up  to  the  point  where  it  is 
possible  to  always  obtain  the  best  results.  In  the  present  every-day 
run  of  railroad  life,  a  master  mechanic,  a  general  foreman,  or  even  a 
machine  shop  foreman,  has  entirely  too  much  to  look  after  to  allow 
him  to  devote  sufficient  time  to  the  tool  or  steel  end  of  his  depart- 
ment. 

What  is  needed  to  overcome  this  difficulty  is  a  demonstrator  or 

teacher,  a  man  who  not  only  possesses  the  necessary  knowledge,  but 

also  the  ability  to  impart  it.     This  man  should  work  hand-in-hand 

with  the  tool  man,  and  it  should  be  his  duty  to  see  that  all  new  tools 

are  thoroughly  understood  by  everybody  who  will  be  called  upon  to  use 

them.     He  should  go  from  shop  to  shop  as  any  new  tools 

Demonstrator.   are  introduced,  and  see  that  they  are  worked  at  all  times 

to  the  best   advantage.     He  should  see  that  the  best 

methods  are  adopted  for  tempering,  handling,  and  applying  all  steels, 

and  that  all  tools  are  kept  up  to  the  proper  capacity. 

JSee  article,  "Care  and  Control  of  the  Small-Tool  Equipment  in  the  Shop,"  by  R.  Emer- 
son, in  Engineering  Magazine,  February,  1905. 


20  Betterment  Briefs. 

Without  going  into  more  elaborate  detail,  and  without  touching 
on  one  of  the  greatest  of  all  the  problems,  labor,  it  can  be  said  without 
fear  of  contradiction  that  the  above  fairly  well  covers  the  ground  of  the 
many  improvements  that  could  be  inaugurated  by  placing  the  tool 
end  of  a  railroad  shop  on  an  equal  basis  with  that  of  a  manufacturing 
concern. 

Widen  the  scope  of  each  tool-room  locally  till  it  embraces  every- 
thing that  properly  belongs  to  its  department ;  then  see  that  the  tools 
along  the  line  are  kept  checked  up  together;  and  the  results  will  be 
beyond  the  most  sanguine  expectations.  The  motive  power  will  be 
brought  nearer  a  universal  standard ;  the  working  method  of  the  entire 
system,  as  far  as  the  shops  are  concerned,  will  be  placed  on  a  sure  and 
accurate  basis,  and  the  saving  thereby  brought  about  will  be  far  greater 
than  can  be  possible  in  any  particular  line  of  shop  practice. — H.  W. 
JACOBS,  in  American  Engineer  and  Railroad  Journal,  May,  1904- 


IMPROVED  DEVICES  FOR  RAILROAD  SHOPS. 


WHILE  it  may  be  said  that  railroads  generally  have  been  slow 
to  adapt  modern  methods  to  locomotive  erecting  and  ma- 
chine work,  a  visit  to  the  Omaha  shops  of  the  Union  Pacific 
will  show  that  one  railroad,  at  least,  has  realized  the  economical  ad- 
vantages of  a  progressive  shop  policy.  The  machine  tools  are  driven 
by  direct-current  motors-and  more  than  60  per  cent  of  the  tools  are 
new.  Good  results  were  obtained,  but  it  was  realized  a  year  or  more 
ago  that  possibilities  for  a  considerable  improvement  in  efficiency  ex- 
isted. It  was  decided  to  put  the  matter  into  the  hands  of  one  man 
Example  of  who  would  devote  his  entire  attention  to  bringing  each 
Progressive  important  tool  up  to  its  maximum  service.  In  some 
Shop  Policy,  cases  the  output  of  a  single  tool  has  been  so  greatly  in- 
creased that  extra  tools,  previously  needed,  have  been  withdrawn  from 
service.  A  few  of  the  more  notable  and  interesting  records  are  given 
in  the  following : 

,  Three  pairs  of  50-in.  Midvale  tires,  which  were  badly  worn,  re- 
quired two  roughing  cuts  and  were  finished  in  4  hours  and  4  minutes, 
the  first  pair  taking  1  hour  and  40  minutes,  the  second  pair  1  hour  and 
Machine  37  minutes,  and  the  third  pair  1  hour  and  27  minutes. 

Practice  and  This  includes  all  work  from  the  time  the  wheels  were 
Production  taken  off  of  the  floor  until  they  were  put  back  again.  The 
Kecords.  machine  used  was  a  90-in.  Pond  lathe  driven  by  a  15-h.p. 

motor.  The  average  surface  speed  was  23  f.  p.  m.,  using  a  ;)i<$-in.  cut 
and  feed.  The  maximum  power  demand  on  the  motor  was  7  h.p.,  and 
the  average  horse-power  was  4^.  On  the  basis  of  these  tests  the 
horse-power  of  the  driving  motor  could  be  reduced  about  one-third 
and  still  have  enough  power  to  do  the  work. 

On  this  same  lathe  84-in.  drivers  having  Standard  tires  were  turned 
at  a  peripheral  speed  of  28^  f.  p.  m.,  using  a  '/lo-in.  cut  and  -TiB-in.  feed. 
Turning  With  these  heavy  cuts  and  feeds  and  high  cutting  speeds, 

Driving-wheel  a  tendency  to  excessive  vibration  is  developed  in  the 
Tires,  machine  due  to  the  dogs  being  too  light  and  the  shaft 

too  small,  and  an  uneven  chattering  motion  given  by  the  large  gears. 
Larger  dogs  have  been  designed  at  the  shops  for  the  purpose  of  reduc- 
ing the  trouble.  It  has  been  suggested  that  these  difficulties  can  be 
overcome  by  doing  away  with  the  driving  shaft,  which  is  subjected 
to  considerable  torsional  stress,  and  drive  each  face  plate  independ- 
ently with  a  worm. 

Before  high-speed  steels  were  introduced  into  the  shops,  car- wheel 
tires  required  5  hours  for  turning.  This  time  has  now  been  reduced 

(21) 


22  Betterment  Briefs. 

to  55  minutes,  the  machine  having  been  speeded  up  to  a  cutting  speed 
Turning  of  28  f.  p.  m.,  as  against  6  ft.  formerly.     The  feeds  and 

Coach-wheel      depth  of  cut  have,  of  course,  been  increased  correspond- 
Tires.  ingly.     The  lathes  proved  to  be  too  light  in  some  re- 

spects for  this  heavier  service,  and  they  were  strengthened  by  replacing 
the  cast-iron  pinions  with  soft  steel. 

Extended  piston  rods  are  finished  from  the  rough  forging  in  7 

hours.     The  former  time  was  14  hours.     The  average  roughing  speed 

is  5  f.  p.  m.  with  J-in.  cut  and  a  %o-in.  feed.     This  work 

Ptoon  Rods      *s  done  on  an  °ld  New  Haven  36-in.  lathe  that  has  been  in 

service  thirty  years.     The  finishing  is  done  on  a  new  38-in. 

Pond  lathe  at  90  f.  p.  m/ 

The  time  on  piston  valves  has  been  reduced  from  14  hours  to  3 
hours.  This  includes  centering  and  turning  valves  of  medium  hard 
cast  iron  12  in.  in  diameter.  The  work  is  done  on  a 
.  LodSe  &  Shipley  36-in.  lathe.  Roughing  is  done  at  38 
f.  p.  m.  with  a  f-in.  cut  and  a  J-in.  feed.  Finishing  and 
grooving  is  done  at  45  f.  p.  m. 

Low-pressure  cylinder  bushings  30  in.  in  diameter  are  turned  in 
1  hour  and  40  minutes  on  a  42-in.  Pond  lathe.  A  year  ago  this  job 
Turning  took  12  hours.  The  speed  is  32  f.  p.  m.  with  a  J-in.  cut 

Cylinder  and  a  J-in.  feed.     The  finishing  cut  is  at  48  f.  p.  m.  with 

Bushings.          a  i_in<  feed.     This  includes  turning  and  facing  complete, 
"floor  to  floor."2 

The  record  for  drilling  flue  sheets  has  been  increased  from  30  to 

110  holes  an  hour.     This  has  been  accomplished  by  means 

SheetHoleS.8    °*  ^ne  cutter  shown  in  the  accompanying  sketch,  Fig.  5, 

which  was  designed  at  the  shops.3 

The  tool  used  for  turning  the  flanging  locomotive  and  car-wheel 
Wheel  Lathe  tires  is  shown  in  Fig.  6.  It  consists  of  a  cast-steel  holder 
Tools  and  having  at  one  end  the  roughing  tool  and  at  the  other  the 
Holder.  flanging  tool,  both  being  made  of  high-speed  steel.4 

The  old  method  of  blocking  up  air  drums  by  means  of  wooden 

blocks  is  shown  in  Fig.  7,  and  as  a  substitute  for  this  antiquated  and 

costly  method,  the  air  hoist  shown  in  Fig.  8  was  devised.     The  hoist 

consists  of  a  5-in.  air  cylinder  supported  upright  in  a  frame  work  on 

three  wheels  provided  with  a  tongue.     The  details  of  con- 

Drums*  Alr      struction  will  be  seen  in  Fig.  9.     The  upper  end  of  the 

piston  rod  is  shouldered  and  threaded  and  carries  a  cradle 

in  which  the  drums  are  placed.     The  rod  carries  a  split  collar  which 

rests  on  the  upper  head  of  the  cylinder,  which  is  used  to  secure  the  rod 

at  any  height. 

To  overcome  the  necessity  of  machining  the  sliding  surfaces  of  the 
crossheads  of  the  Vauclain  compounds  a  cast-iron  jig  (Fig.  10)  is  used. 

1  See  p.  43  for  improved  methods  in  turning  piston  rods. 

2  See  p.  124  for  improvements  made  in  design  of  cylinder  bushings  and  the  reduced  cost 
of  turning. 

3 See  p.  86  for  photograph  and  description  of  flue-sheet  cutter. 

4  Illustrations  of  tool-holder  and  tools  and  saving  in  steel  by  its  use,  shown  on  p.  115. 


Improved  Devices  for  Railroad  Shops. 


Arbor  of  safe  steel 


k 

•'/'  . 
*'     ^ 

1 

/  

^                       Morse  toper  *4  """ 

A  ' 

. 

Cutters   of  various  diameters    interchangeable  on  eacfi  arbor 

FIG.  ,5 — FLUE-HOLE  CUTTER  WHICH  HAS  A  CAPACITY  OF  OVER  100  HOLES  AN 
HOUR.     DESIGNED  BY  A  SHOP  DEMONSTRATOR. 


24 


Betterment  Briefs. 


Improved  Devices  for  Railroad  Shops. 


FIG.  7 — OLD  METHOD  OF  RAISING  AIR  DRUMS  TO  POSITION  BY  BLOCKING  UP 
WITH  WOODEN  BLOCKS.  TlME  REQUIRED  TO  RAISE  DRUM  TO  POSITION  AS  SHOWN, 
2  HRS.  AND  45  MIN  ,  FOR  2  MEN, 


Betterment  Briefs. 


FIG.  8 — PNEUMATIC  AIR  HOIST  FOR  RAISING  AIR  DRUMS.    ONE  MAN  WITH  THIS 

DEVICE  WILL   RAISE   A   DRUM   TO   POSITION   IN    1   HR..    THUS   SAVING   2   HRS.    AND    30 
MIN.   OVER  THE  OLD   METHOD. 


Improved  Devices  for  Railroad  Shops. 


FIG.  9 — ELEVATIONS  AND  SECTION  OF  PNEUMATIC  AIR  DRUM  HOIST. 


Betterment  Briefs. 


FIG.  10 — SIDE  AND  END  ELEVATIONS  OF  JIG  FOR  BABBITTING  CROSSHEADS 
OF  VAUCLAIN  COMPOUND  LOCOMOTIVES,  AVOIDING  THE  NECESSITY  OF  MACHINING 
THE  BABBITT  BEARING  FACES. 


Improved  Devices  for  Railroad  Shops.  29 

It  consists  of  two  end-plates  made  of  boiler  plate,  which  are  supported 
by  two  soft-steel  mandrels,  each  having  a  taper  part  to  fit  the  piston 
rod  fit  of  the  crosshead.  The  end  plates  support  four  cast-iron  angle 
face-plates  in  the  same  position  relative  to  the  crosshead  as  the  guides. 
The  fop  and  bottom  angle-plates  on  each  side  are  clamped  together  and 
hand  wheels  with  threaded  stems,  inserted  through  the  clamps,  bear 
Crosshead  Ji  aSamst  the  end-plates,  holding  the  angle-plates  rigid 
longitudinally.  The  crosshead  is  heated  in  a  molten 
babbitt  bath  contained  in  a  cast-iron  box,  and  the  end-plates  and 
mandrels  are  heated  to  a  uniform  temperature.  The  resulting  bab- 
bitted surfaces  are  of  such  smoothness  that  after  a  short  time  in  service 
their  condition  is  as  satisfactory  as  if  they  had  been  milled  or  planed, 
while  the  time  for  this  later  operation,  amounting  to  1J  hours  per 
crosshead,  is  entirely  saved. 

The  method  of  milling  ports  in  piston  valve  bushings  for  compound 
engines  is  shown  in  Fig.  11.  This  is  done  with  a  specially  designed 
fixture,  which  mills  four  ports  at  once.1 

By  the  use  of  knuckle-pin  reamers  the  time  for  reaming  rods  has  been 
reduced  from  2  hours  to  15  minutes.     In  connection  with  the  reamers 
is  a  set  of  templates  which  have  been  reamed  out,  hardened  and  ground, 
to  which  the  reamers  have  been  sized.     The  different  shops  along  the 
line  have  been  supplied  with  reamers,  but  the  templates 
HoleCReamers    are  ^ept  m  *^e  Omaha  shop,  each  hole  having  a  symbol 
number  corresponding  to  the  reamer  that  has  been  fitted 
to  this  hole.     All   knuckle  pins  are  made  at  Omaha,  and  any  point 
along  the  line  wanting  a  certain  pin  simply  gives  the  symbol  number.2 
Twenty  triple  valves  are  completely  overhauled  in  a  day  of  nine 
hours  by  one  man  and  an  apprentice.     Fig.  12  is  a  corner  of  the  brass- 
room  where  triple  valve  work  is  done,  showing  the  rack 
Work  ^or  testmS  the  valves.     One  man  grinds  7  angle-cocks  in 

35  minutes.  This  is  done  on  a  special  grinding  machine 
(Fig.  13)  that  has  been  built  up  out  of  a  nut  tapper  rescued  from  the 
scrap  bin. 

All  shoes  and  wedges  for  the  entire  system  (about  3600  per  year) 
are  planed  on  a  Pond  machine.     The  time  is  30  minutes 
Per  s^oe  or  wedge>  planing  the  surface  on  five  sides.     A 
Wedges.  special  chuck  was  devised  for  this  work.     With  a  special 

adjustable  chuck,  driving-box  brasses  are  turned  to  fit 
the  box  (for  a  9-in.  journal)  in  15  to  20  minutes.  For  former  time  was 
1  hour.3 

Eccentrics,  cast-iron,  in  two  halves  are  planed  up  with  a  special 

__....  jig  for  clamping  them  on  the  planer,  at  the  rate  of  six 

Eccenfrics         halves  an  hour.     The  former  time  was  two  halves  an  hour. 

They  are  turned  on  a  special  mandrel  holding  four  at  one 

1  See  pp.  97-98  for  comparison  of  old  and  new  methods  of  milling  the  ports  in  piston  valve 
bushings. 

2  Illustrations  of  standard  knuckle-pin  hole-reamers  shown  on  p.  79. 
3 See  p.  14  for  illustration  of  special  shoe  and  wedge-planer  chuck. 


30  Betterment  Briefs. 

time  (Fig.  14)  at  the  rate  of  one  hour  each.     The  former  time  was  two 
hours  each.1 

The  former  record  for  boring  cast-iron  car  wheels  was  50  in  nine 
hours  by  one  man.  There  is  now  a  record  of  boring  90  wheels  for  a 

.  5i-in.  fit  in  this  same  time,  by  one  man,  on  two  boring 

Wheefs  mills,  using  high-speed    steel   cutters.     With   a   double 

angle-iron  for  clamping,  and  a  double  tool-holder,  eight 

new  driving  boxes  have  been  planed  up  complete  in  14  hours.     The 

time  with  old  methods  was  5  hours  jw?  box. 

One  specially  belted  planer,  to  plane  steel  rods,  runs 
cmneRecords   ^  ^  P*  m*  an<^  removes;  on  actual  test,  846  Ibs.  of  metal 

per  hour.2 

Eighty  two-in.  steel  tires  are  bored  and  faced  (J-in.  stock  removed) 
in  35  minutes.     The  old  time  with  the  old  steel  was  three  hours. 

On  a  Gisholt  lathe,  fitted  up  with  high-speed  cutters,  forty  4-in.  cast- 
iron  piston-rod  glands  have  been  fitted  up  in  nine  hours. 

On  a  new  24-in.  Pond  lathe,  sixty  13-in.  valve  packing  rings  have 
been  bored,  faced  and  cut  off  in  six  hours. 

A  special  double  tool-holder  for  slotter  work  enables  the  operator 
to  slot  out  a  large  steel  driving  box  complete  for  brass  and  cellar  fit, 
in  H  hours ;  old  time,  3  hours. 

A  special  revolving  angle-iron  chuck,  with  which  the  brass  needs 
but  one  cutting,  enables  the  operator  to  plane  for  the  rod  fit  a  large 
back-end  main  rod  brass  in  2J  hours.  The  time  by  the  old  method 
was  five  hours. 

Other  aids  to  rapid  handling  of  work  are  the  regulation  of  the  crane 
service,  and  the  narrow-gauge  track  system.  For  instance,  there  is 
used  with  the  crane  a  form  of  tackle  which  permits  of  four  driver  boxes 
being  picked  up  and  carried  with  safety  at  one  time.3  Material  is 
stored  in  special  places  on  the  platforms,  and  all  refuse,  chips,  scrap, 
etc.,  are  placed  in  bins  provided  for  each,  these  bins  being  emptied 
periodically.  The  narrow-gauge  road  for  the  most  part  runs  by  a  time- 
table. 

The  present  efficient  condition  of  these  shops  has  been  brought 
about  under  the  supervision  of  W.  R.  McKeen,  Jr.,  superintendent  of 
motive  power  and  machinery,  to  whose  suggestions  many  of  the  spe- 
cial methods  and  devices  in  use  are  due.  H.  W.  Jacobs,  general  shop 
demonstrator  for  the  Union  Pacific  System,  has  been  directly  in  charge 
of  the  work. — Notes  by  an  editor  of  The  Railroad  Gazette,  June  24, 
1904. 

1  Special  jig  for  milling  eccentric  halves  shown  on  p.  13. 

2  See  pp.  48,49,51  for  illustrations  and  description  of  re-designed  planer  for  high-speed  tools. 
8See  p.  157  for  illustration  of  a  driving-box  sling  of  similar  design. 


Improved  Devices  for  Railroad  Shops. 


31 


FIG.  11 — SPECIAL  DEVICE  FOR  MILLING  MACHINE,  ENABLING  FOUR  PORTS  IN 
PISTON- VALVE  BUSHINGS  TO  BE  MILLED  SIMULTANEOUSLY,  DEVISED  BY  SUPER- 
INTENDENT OF  SHOP. 


OF   THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


Betterment  Briefs. 


FIG.  12 — CORNER  or  AIR  ROOM  SHOWING  RACK  WHERE  ALL  TRIPLE  VALVES 

ARE  TESTED  FOR  A  RAILWAY  SYSTEM. 


FIG.  13 — ANGLE-COCK  GRINDING  MACHINE  ON  WHICH  ONE  MAN  GRINDS  7  ANGLE 
COCKS  IN  35  MINUTES.  CLOSE  INSPECTION  OF  THE  ILLUSTRATION  WILL  SHOW 
"PHANTOM"  ANGLE  COCKS  IN  PLACE.  DEVISED  BY  GENERAL  FOREMAN. 


Improved  Devices  for  Railroad  Shops.  33 


FIG.  14 — SPECIAL  MANDREL  FOR  TURNING  4  ECCENTRICS  WITHOUT  CHANGING 
MANDREL.  TlME  OF  TURNING  ONE  ECCENTRIC  WASREDUCED  FROM  2  HOURS  TO 
45  MIN.  BY  THIS  DEVICE. 


34 


Betterment  Briefs. 


FIG.  15 — PLANER  WITH  DRIVING-BOX  JIG  AND  ATTACHMENTS  FOR  PLANING  TWO 
ROWS  OF  DRIVING  BOXES  AT  ONE  TIME. 


.IFO 


HIGH-SPEED  STEEL  IN  RAILROAD  SHOPS. 


AS  a  result  of  extended  observation  and  considerable  experience  in 
handling  the  new  steels  and  applying  progressive  methods  in 
connection  with  them,  I  would  lay  it  down  as  a  cardinal  principle 
that  before  any  attempt  is  made  to  put  in  so  radical  a  factor  of  in- 
creased production  as  the  new  high-speed  steel,  the  fullest  attention 
should  be  given  to  the  machine  end  of  the  plant,  and  to  the  methods  in 
vogue  at  the  place  where  these  steels  are  to  be  introduced.   No  amount  of 
steel,  bought  out  of  hand,  is  going  to  revolutionize  the  manner  of  doing 

the  work :  and  mere  purchase  of  expensive  grades  of  steel 
Preparations         ...  ,  .         j     f.  -nT-r^ 

necessary  be-     will  not  cheapen  the  cost  of  production.     Even  if  the  new 

fore  Introduc-  tools  are  being  introduced  by  men  who  understand  them 
ing  Alloy  Steel.  A  ?  .  '  . 

thoroughly  and  who  exercise  energy  in  applying  them 

to  practical  work,  the  result  will  not  always  be  up  to  expectations, 
and  a  host  of  unsuspected  and  discouraging  evils  will  be  brought  in. 

In  the  first  place,  the  majority  of  machine  tools  in  railroad  shops 
today  are  not  designed  or  built  to  stand  the  service  that  the  high-speed 
steel  would  demand  of  them.  To  introduce  these  steels  in  the  ordinary 
course  of  events  will  often  prove  disastrous  to  the  machines  (Fig.  81), 
if  these  are  speeded  up  or  worked  with  heavy  cuts,  unless  proper  safe- 
guards are  taken.  The  depreciation  rate  becomes  much  greater  under 
the  new  condition  than  under  the  old;  but  with  proper  management 
it  will  be  found  profitable  to  do  this  when  the  increased  production 
capacity  is  realized. 

The  most  difficult  factor  to  deal  with,  however,  when  there  is  not 
the  whetting  of  competition  (as  in  the  case  of  commercial  shops)  to 
Difficulties  f°rce  the  management  to  be  vigorous  in  prosecuting  im- 
to  be  proved  methods,  is  the  attitude  of  the  men,  who  have 

Encountered.  grown  used  to  the  old  ways,  and  who  view  with  hostility 
and  suspicion  any  innovation  of  this  character.1 

Unless  a  director  of  methods  or  demonstrator  is  employed,  whose 
special  duty  it  is  not  only  to  direct  how  the  tools  shall  be  made  and 
used,  but  also  to  keep  the  men  up  to  the  new  cuts  and  speeds,  the  great 
majority  of  the  men  will  be  most  loath  to  maintain  the  increased  pace 

aThe  practical  value  of  the  shop  demonstrator,  p.  19. 

(35) 


36  Betterment  Briefs. 

that  the  new  steel  necessitates  in  order  to  be  a  paying  proposition. 
To  get  around  this  difficulty  the  writer  has  found  it  an  excellent  plan : 
First,  to  examine  the  machines  as  to  their  capacity  of  standing  the  in- 
Increase  creased  service,  to  remedy  what  defects  might  be  found 

Machine  (Fig.  16).  Then  immediately  to  increase  the  speeds,  by 

changes  in  pulley  sizes  on  both  main  and  countershafts, 
so  as  to  have  the  machines  in  general  running  at  a  rate  of  speed  much 
above  that  used  with  the  older  tool  steels. 

These  speed  increases  may  vary  from  30  per  cent  to  over  200  per 
cent  above  the  original  speed.  They  are  not  attained  by  one  jump, 
but  by  a  succession  of  judicious  increases,  gradually  getting  the  men 
used  to  the  higher  speed,  to  a  busier  hum  of  pulleys  and  machines,  to 
a  greater  rapidity  in  turning  out  the  work.  By  making  these  changes 
(Figs.  18,  20  and  84),  and  at  the  same  time  following  up  the  matter 
of  proper  use  of  cutting  tools,  with  proper  feeds  and  cuts,  the  men  are 
induced,  almost  unconsciously,  to  fall  in  line  with  the  new  methods. 
One  very  essential  point,  which  should  not  be  overlooked,  is  that  every 
tool  of  the  older  steels  should  be  withdrawn  from  the  shop  entirely, 
and  high-speed  tools  substituted,  so  as  to  prevent  any  tendency  to 
cling  to  the  old  ways  of  doing  things. 

Not  only  do  the  mechanics  object  to  innovations,  but  the  gang  fore- 
men, foremen,  and  general  foremen  even,  do  not  accustom  themselves 
readily  to  the  new  conditions.  For  it  must  be  remembered  that  the 
foreman  of  a  shop,  more  particularly  of  a  railroad  shop,  has  so  many 
duties  devolving  upon  him  that  he  does  not,  as  a  rule,  have  sufficient 
time  for  looking  after  a  new  move  of  this  kind.  The  introduction 
should,  therefore,  be  in  the  hands  of  a  man  whose  whole  time  can  be 
Opportunity  devoted  to  the  handling  of  the  new  tools.  This  man 
for  Shop  should  be  a  thorough  mechanic,  well  informed  as  to  the 

as  ra  or.  care  an(j  wor]^mg  of  these  steels,  and  of  sufficient  inventive 
ability  to  devise  quick  methods  and  ways  of  economizing  work.  He 
should  also  possess  the  knack  of  being  able  to  get  along  with  the 
workman  with  a  minimum  amount  of  friction,  for  the  attitude  of  hos- 
tility before  mentioned  is  never  so  much  in  evidence  as  when  the  man 
who  is  responsible  for  these  changes  is  actively  engaged.  And  he 
should  stimulate  the  foremen  with  whom  he  is  working,  to  advance 
ideas,  such  as  that  shown  in  Fig.  37  (for  which  full  credit  is  given 
when  successful),  even  to  a  spirit  of  rivalry  with  himself  in  the  intro- 
duction of  time-savers. 

Yet  the  individual  capacity  and  tact  of  this  demonstrator  will  not 


High-Speed  Steel  in  Railroad  Shops. 


37 


FIG.  16 — STEEL  PINION  FOR  COACH  WHEEL  LATHE  TO  REPLACE  ONE  OF  CAST 
IRON  THAT  WAS  NOT  STRONG  ENOUGH  TO  STAND  THE  HEAVY  CUTS  TAKEN  WITH 
HIGH-SPEED  TOOLS. 


38 


Betterment  Briefs. 


FIG.  17 — RE-DESIGNED  STEADY  REST  FOR  LATHE  AND  OLD  DESIGN  THAT  WAS 
NOT  STIFF  ENOUGH  TO  SUPPORT  THE  ROD  UNDER  THE  HEAVY  DUTY  IMPOSED  ON 
IT  BY  HIGH-SPEED  TOOLS. 


High-Speed  Steel  in  Railroad  Shops. 


39 


FIG.  18 — FESD  CONE  PULLEY  FOR  LATHE,  RE-DESIGNED  TO  INCREASE  THE  CA- 
PACITY OF  THE  MACHINE  UP  TO  THE  FULL  CAPABILITIES  OF  THE  HIGH-SPEED  TOOL 
STEEL, 


40 


Betterment  Briefs. 


FIG.  19 — PHOTOGRAPH  SHOWING  RELATIVE  SIZES  OF  OLD  AND  NEW  FEED  CONE 
PULLEYS  OF  A  LATHE  TRANSFORMED  FOR  USE  WITH  HIGH-SPEED  STEEL. 


High-Speed  Steel  in  Railroad  Shops.  41 


FIG.  20 — VIEW  OF  DRILL  PRESS  SHOWING  CHANGES  IN  FEED  CONE  PULLEYS, 
DUE  TO  THE  USE  OF  HIGH-SPEED  DRILLS. 


Betterment  Briefs. 


FIG.  21 — SNAP  RING  MILLING  MACHINE  DESIGNED  BY  A  MACHINE  FOREMAN 
AND  BUILT  LARGELY  FROM  PARTS  OF  OLD  MACHINERY.  TlME  FOR  MACHINING  ONE 
KING,  35  SECONDS. 


High-Speed  Steel  in  Railroad  Shops.  43 

alone  meet  the  problem.  Unless  full  support  is  given  by  the  superin- 
tendent of  motive  power  himself,  unless  it  be  well  understood  that  he 
intends  making  a  success  of  the  new  methods,  and  it  be  shown  from 
time  to  time,  by  personal  talks  with  the  more  influential  foremen,  and 
in  other  ways,  that  these  innovations  are  no  mere  vagaries  of  an  un- 
practical man  who  is  only  "on  trial,"  the  progress  of  improvements 
Responsibility  w^  ^e  namPerecl  at  every  turn.  Moreover,  as  the  chief 
of  Higher  attention  of  the  demonstrator  will  be  required  in  the 
Officers.  shop  so  as  to  keep  the  new  methods  moving,  he  should 

be  afforded  the  use,  when  necessary,  of  draughtsman  and  stenogra- 
pher, as  it  will  riot  pay  to  have  him  spend  his  time  over  the  drawing- 
board,  or  in  writing  out,  longhand,  whatever  communications  he  needs 
to  make. 

These  are  the  main  points  to  be  considered  in  the  introduction  of 
the  new  alloy  steel  tools,  or  rather  the  obstacles  to  which  chief  attention 
must  be  given  and  which  must  be  overcome  before  any  permanently 
beneficial  results  can  be  obtained.  As  to  the  results  themselves,  no 
better  evidence  may  be  given  of  what  can  be  accomplished  than  to 
cite  examples  of  what  has  been  done  in  a  shop  where  'these  principles 
have  been  adhered  to.  When  the  new  steel  tools  were  first  announced, 
extensive  tests  were  made  in  this  shop  of  all  brands  that  could  be  se- 
cured, and  steps  were  taken  to  secure  a  man  who  could  direct  their  in- 
troduction. While,  of  course,  the  superintendent  of  motive  power 
could  not  devote  time  and  attention  to  each  little  detail,  yet  he  directs 
in  a  large  and  farsighted  way  the  lines  it  would  pay  best  to  follow,  and 
it  must  be  acknowledged  that  without  his  interest  no  such  degree  of 
success  could  be  attained.  I  need  only  add  that  the  cases  that  follow 
are  not  special  record  ones  (as  was  that  of  turning  a  pair  of  68-in.  driver 
tires  in  1  hour  and  31  minutes),  but  are  typical  of  everyday  perform- 
ance. The  same  character  of  results  has  been  attained  in  hundreds  of 
other  such  jobs. 

EXTENDED  PISTON  RODS. — These  rods  (Fig.  22)  were  rough-forged 
in  the  blacksmith  shop.  The  time  for  complete  turning,  threading, 
fitting,  etc.,  under  the  old  conditions,  was  14  hours.  When  the  new 
steels  were  put  in,  the  man  on  this  work  was  supplied  with  an  outfit 
of  tools  and  instructed  to  get  the  most  he  could  out  of  them.  The  best 
time  he  made  was  12  hours,  but  even  this  did  not  always  keep  up  when 
the  man  was  left  to  his  own  resources.  This  reduction  in  time  was 
obtained  by  using  a  faster  step  on  the  cone  pulley,  and  by  increase 
in  the  depth  of  cut.  However,  as  it  was  rather  inconvenient  to  make 


44  Betterment  Briefs. 

the  belt  changes,  the  man  preferred  to  run  at  a  slower  rate.     The  matter 

__         was  then  taken  hold  of  by  the  demonstrator  and  a  num- 
Modern  Meth- 
ods  Applied  to   ber  of  changes  were  made.     First,  the  work  was  divided 

between  two  lathes,  one  for  rough  turning  and  one  for 
finishing.  The  lathe  for  rough  turning  was  an  old  one, 
but  was  put  in  shape,  fitted  with  steady  rests  (see  Figs.  17  and  23),  etc., 
and  adapted  for  turning  roughly  to  within  %o  in.  of  finished  size.  The 
pulleys  on  main  and  countershafts  were  changed,  making  a  speed 
increase  of  from  140  to  320  r.  p.  m.  This  maintained  the  higher  turn- 
ing speed  even  on  the  lower  cone  pulley  step.  A  second-year  ap- 
prentice was  used  on  this  part  of  the  work,  replacing  the  more  con- 
servative machinist,  and  he  was  induced  to  use  the  higher  step  at  the 
cone  pulley.  The  peripheral  speed  of  the  work  was  thereby  changed 
from  20  ft.  to  65  ft.  per  minute.  On  rough  turning  the  depth  of  cut 
was  doubled,  thus  finishing  a  rod  with  only  one  heavy  roughing  cut 
instead  of  two.  The  feed  was  increased  from  i/ie  in.  to  %2  in.  The  total 

time  of  rough  turning  under  the  new  conditions  was,  therefore, 


or  about  1-1  6th  of  the  former  time.  This  is  for  actual  rough  cutting. 
The  former  time  of  complete  rough  turning  was  two  hours  and  fifteen 
minutes,  to  which  must  be  added  one  hour  and  three-quarters  for  set- 
ting work,  etc.  Under  the  new  conditions,  although  the  actual  rough 
cutting  time  was  reduced  to  about  ten  minutes,  the  complete  time  of 
rough  turning  was  one  hour  and  a  half,  the  additional  hour  and  twenty 
minutes  being  the  sum  of  all  the  times  necessary  to  turn  the  rod  end 
for  end,  apply  and  take  down  chucks  and  dogs,  rough  turning  taper 
and  collar,  threading,  grinding  tools,  etc.  In  other  words,  the  ratio  of 
cutting  time  to  total  time  was  greatly  reduced.  The  black-  line  dia- 
gram, Fig.  24,  illustrates  where  the  saving  was  effected. 

In  the  finishing  process  similar  methods  were  employed,  with  sim- 
ilarly gratifying  results,  although  here  the  principal  time-savings  were 
by  methods  and  not  by  high-speed  steel;  so  that,  all  in  all,  the  time 
reduction  of  six  to  seven  hours  on  this  one  job  was  due  as  much  to 
intelligent  modification  of  the  conditions  under  which  the  new  steels 
were  to  act  as  to  the  steels  themselves. 

COACH  WHEEL  TIRES.  —  Another  example  is  that  of  the 
Reduction  in  -    .     ,  ..      ,  ,       ,  *  ,        , 

Time  of  Turn-    time  on  one  Pair  °*  steel-tired  coach  wheels,  where  a  re- 

ing  Coach         duction  was  made  from  five  hours  to  one  hour.     As  in 

the  previous  case,  increase  in  pulleys,  thus  permanently 

increasing  wheel-lathe  speed,  and  other  changes,  such  as  special  designs 


High-Speed  Steel  in  Railroad  Shops. 


45 


FIG.  22 — EXTENDED  PISTON  RODS  ON  WHICH  THE  TIME  FOR  FINISHING  COM- 
PLETE WAS  REDUCED  FROM   14  TO  7  HOURS  BY  APPLYING  MODERN  METHODS. 


46 


Betterment  Briefs. 


FIG.  23 — TURNING  EXTENDED  PISTON  RODS  IN  LATHE  EQUIPPED  WITH  HIGH- 
SPEED TOOLS  AND  APPLIANCES. 


work    and  all 


Straight  rough 
Turning. 

/JS  Minutes 


SO  Mi 


OLD      CONDITIONS. 


IO  M/nute.3 


NEW  CONDITIONS. 

iO7 


FIG.  24 — SECTION  OF  EXTENDED  PISTON  ROD  SHOWING  METAL  REMOVED  (IN 
BLACK)  FROM  ROUGH  FORGING,  AND  TIME  TAKEN  FOR  ALL  OPERATIONS  UNDER  BOTH 
OLD  AND  NEW  CONDITIONS. 


High-Speed  Steel  in  Railroad  Shops. 


47 


FIG.  25 — COMPARISON  OF  OLD  AND  NEW  DESIGNS  OF  WHEEL  LATHE  TOOLS, 
SHOWING  THE  WAY  TO  ECONOMIZE  IN  THE  AMOUNT  OF  HIGH-SPEED  STEEL  USED. 
THE  TOOLS  FOR  USE  WITH  CAST-STEEL  TOOL-HOLDER  REPLACE  THE  SOLID  TOOLS 
WEIGHING  NEARLY  TEN  TIMES  AS  MUCH  IN  TOOL-STEEL. 


48 


Betterment  Briefs. 


FIG.  26 — VIEWS  SHOWING  INCREASE  IN  SIZE  OF  DRIVING  PULLEY  ON  PLANER 
FOR  INCREASING  THE  PLANER'S  CUTTING  SPEED  IN  CONNECTION  WITH  THE  USE 

OF  HIGH-SPEED  TOOLS. 


High-Speed  Steel  in  Railroad  Shops. 


49 


FIG.  27 — VIEW  SHOWING  PLANER  AND  NEW  20  H.  p.  MOTOR  WHICH  SUPPLANTED 

A    10   H.    P.    MOTOR   IN   ORDER  TO   PROVIDE   SUFFICIENT   POWER   TO   DRIVE  THE   NEW 
HIGH-SPEED  CUTTING  TOOLS  TO  FULL  CAPACITY. 


50 


Betterment  Briefs. 


FIG.  28 — VIEW  FROM  ABOVE  PLANER  BED  SHOWING  LARGE  CHIPS  REMOVED 
BY  HIGH-SPEED  TOOLS  FROM  MAIN  RODS. 


High-Speed  Steel  in  Railroad  Shops.  51 

of  tool-holders  (see  Fig.  6) ,  substitution  of  forged  steel  pinions  for  cast 
iron  (see  Fig.16),  so  the  machine  could  stand  the  increased  strain, 
were  all  instrumental  in  accomplishing  the  desired  results. 

PLANERS. — Speed  increases  were  made  in  the  principal  planers  up 
to  a  cut  of  over  50  ft.  per  minute,  or  the  limit  under  this  heavy  work  of 
Improved  ^e  ^°°^s-  One  resu^  °f  this  change  is  a  close  approach 
Planer  to  the  reverse  speed  of  the  speed  of  cutting  stroke,  as 

Practice.  nearly  the  limit  of  the  machine's  capacity  to   overcome 

the  inertia  of  the  table  is  reached  under  the  changed  conditions.  Figs. 
26  and  27  illustrate  improvements  in  planer  practice.1 

If  space  permitted,  numerous  other  instances  could  be  cited,  all 
taken  from  actual  shop  practice,  such  as  turning  eccentrics,  cylinder 
bushings,  car  axles,  planing  shoes  and  wedges,  etc. 

The  time  on  all  these  was  reduced  from  one-half  to  one-eighth  of 
former  time.  The  average  increase,  based  on  actual  output,  and  the 
difference  in  weight  of  metal  removed  was : 

Cast  Iron 120  per  cent. 

Steel 150  per  cent. 

Good,  clean  wrought  iron 175  per  cent. 

CONCLUSIONS. 

In  conclusion  I  can  but  repeat  that  the  buying  of  high-speed  steel 
is  of  little  use  unless  progressive  methods  of  application  in  actual  work 
are  employed  to  effect  real  reduction  in  cost,  which  is  the  final  and  only 
test  in  the  question.  In  order  to  introduce  these  methods  it  is  always 
better  policy  to  bring  into  each  shop  a  man  who  has  not  been  brought 
up  in  the  traditions  of  the  place,  and  have  him  make  the  changes,  the 
possibility  of  which  would  not  be  seen  as  rapidly  by  one  too  used  to  the 
older  conditions.  A  local  demonstrator  should  report  direct  to  the 
superintendent  of  shops,  or  where  there  is  no  such  posi- 
t*on>  to  ^e  division  master  mechanic,  so  that  he  will 
have  sufficient  authority  behind  him  to  carry  out  his 
plans,  and  so  that  general  and  important  interests  may  not 
be  sacrificed  to  local  and  individual  preferences.  If  there  were 
a  general  demonstrator  for  an  entire  railroad  system,  the  local 
demonstrator  should  report  to  him,  and  he  in  turn  direct  to  the 
highest  authority  in  control  of  the  different  shops,  the  superintendent 
of  motive  power.  Of  course,  upon  the  latter  person  the  ultimate  suc- 
cess or  failure  of  an  enterprise  of  this  kind  must  rest.  So  far  as  I  know, 

1  See  report  of  planer  tests  1  and  2,  p.  54. 


52  Betterment  Briefs. 

Mr.  W.  R.  McKeen,  Jr.,  of  the  Union  Pacific,  has  been  the  only,  or  at 
least  the  first,  superintendent  of  motive  power  who  has  had  the  temer- 
ity to  create  a  position  of  this  kind,  and  who  has  used  the  force  to  drive 
his  purpose  home.  That  he  has  been  amply  justified  is  admitted  by 
all  who  have  had  the  opportunity  to  see  the  results  accomplished  in 
the  shops  on  his  system,  not  alone  in  the  new  Omaha  shops,  but  also 
in  the  redistribution  of  work  among  all  the  shops,  made  possible  by 
the  increased  capacity  and  concentration  of  manufacture  in  the  main 
shops,  and  in  the  economies  effected  by  restricting  the  smaller  and  less 
well-equipped  points  to  repairs  requiring  light  machine  work  only. — 
H.  W.  JACOBS,  in  American  Engineer  and  Railroad  Journal,  Septem- 
ber, 1904. 


HIGH-SPEED  TOOL  STEEL  IN  RAILROAD  SHOPS. 

EDITORIAL  COMMENT  BY  AMERICAN  ENGINEER  AND  RAILROAD  JOURNAL,  SEPT.,  1904. 

If  busy  railroad  officers  who  are  at  their  "wit's  end"  to  know  how  to  meet 
the  conditions  of  decreased  rates  per  ton  mile  and  increased  cost  of  labor  and 
material  will  carefully  ponder  the  record  presented  by  Mr.  Jacobs  in  this  issue, 
they  will  discover  one  of  the  roads  they  need  to  follow,  that  of  the  application  of 
commercial  principles  to  railroad  service. 

Mr.  Jacobs  treats  of  shop  practice,  and  when  "  16  to  1,"  the  familiar  slogan, 
is  applied  so  successfully  to  the  improvement  of  shop-tool  output,  the  record  is  en- 
titled to  keen  attention  by  the  highest  officials  of  all  our  railroads.  The  Union 
Pacific  has  become  a  leader  in  this  movement  toward  improved  shop  methods. 
On  cast-iron,  the  improvement  in  output  has  been  120  per  cent;  on  steel,  150 
per  cent,  and  on  wrought  iron,  175  per  cent,  considering  actual  results  and  the 
weight  of  metal  removed  in  a  given  time.  Union  Pacific  practice,  before  the  new 
methods  were  applied,  was  probably  neither  far  better  nor  far  worse  than  that 
of  other  roads.  It  is,  therefore,  safe  to  say  that  other  roads  present  the  same 
opportunities  for  improvement.  If  the  statements  of  Mr.  Jacobs  receive  the 
attention  they  merit,  a  wave  of  improvement  of  machine  and  shop  output  will 
pass  over  the  entire  country,  and  this  will  mean  much  for  the  railroads  and  for 
the  men  into  whose  hands  this  opportunity  falls. 

Nearly  every  shop  has  the  new  tool  steels,  and  blue  chips  are  commonly  seen. 
This,  however,  is  not  sufficient.  Machine  tools,  men,  and  shop  methods  require  a 
new  kind  of  attention.  In  fact,  the  new  steels  have  revolutionized  shop  prac- 
tice all  over  the  world,  and  the  railroads  are  suitably  encouraged.  The  railroad 
mechanical  officer  will  be  in  position  to  contribute,  as  he  never  has  before,  to 
the  advancement  of  transportation,  and  he  will  take  a  high  place  among  the 
leaders  of  the  times.  This  officer  is  ready  and  willing  to  undertake  his  task. 
The  main  question  lies  before  the  management,  the  directors  and  the  owners, 
Shall  this  opportunity  be  accepted?  It  will  be  accepted,  and  this  journal  ex- 
pects to  be  kept  busy  recording  the  steps  in  this  revolution. 


High-Speed  Steel  in  Railroad  Shops. 


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Betterment  Briefs. 


FIG.  29 — TESTS  Nos.  1  AND  2.     ON  LEFT,  NOSE  OF  CARBON  TOOL  AND  CHIPS 

REMOVED  DURING  FIVE  SECONDS.  NOTE  BURNED  CONDITION  OF  CUTTING  EDGE 
AFTER  8-FOOT  LONGITUDINAL  CUT  (TWO  STROKES  OF  THE  PLANER).  ON  RIGHT, 
NOSE  OF  ALLOY  STEEL  AND  CHIPS  REMOVED  DURING  FIVE  SECONDS.  EDGE  PERFECT 
AFTER  ROUGH  PLANING  TWO  SIDE-ROD  CHANNELS. 


J 


FIG.  30 — TESTS  3  AND  4.     PICTURE  SHOWS  EQUIVALENT  TURNINGS  BY  THE 
TWO  TOOLS;  THAT  is,  THE  PROPORTIONATE  AMOUNT  TURNED  BY  EACH  IN  THE  SAME 

LENGTH   OF  TIME.       ON  THE   LEFT   IS  THE  ALLOY   TOOL  WITH   ITS  CHIP  AND  ON   THE 
RIGHT  IS  THE  CARBON  TOOL.       BETWEEN  THEM  IS  A  SIX-INCH  RULE. 


From  W.  R.  McKeen's  paper  betore  Railway  Master  Mechanics  Association,  1904. 


High-Speed  Steel  in  Railroad  Shops. 


55 


FIG.  31 — TESTS  5  AND  6.  TOOLS  USED  ON  CAST  IRON.  ON  THE  RIGHT,  ALLOY 
TOOL,  AND  ON  THE  LEFT,  CARBON  TOOL.  NOTE  BURNED  CONDITION  OF  THE  LATTER 
AT  THE  END  OF  A  FEW  MINUTES*  USE. 


FIG.  32 — TESTS  7  TO  10.  ON  THE  LEFT,  ALLOY  TWIST  DRILLS  USED  IN  THESE 
TESTS.  PERFECT  CONDITION  UPON  COMPLETION  OF  WORK.  ON  THE  RIGHT,  ORDI- 
NARY CARBON  DRILL.  EDGES  BURNED  AFTER  DRILLING  $-INCH  HOLE. 


From  W.  R.  McKeen's  paper  before  Railway  Master  Mechanics  Association,  1904. 


56 


Betterment  Briefs. 


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Betterment  Briefs. 


FIG.  33 — PHOTOGRAPH  SHOWING  THE  LARGE  CHIPS  REMOVED  BY  HIGH-SPEED 

STEEL  IN  FLUTING  MAIN  RODS.       IN  THE  TESTS  780  LBS.  OF  METAL  WERE  REMOVED 
PER  HOUR  WITH  ALLOY  STEEL  AS  AGAINST  288  LBS.  WITH  CARBON  STEEL. 


From  W.  R.  McKeen's  paper  before  Railway  Master  Mechanics  Association,  1904. 


PRACTICAL  ADVICE  TO  COLLEGE  MEN. 


IN  the  past  few  years  an  entirely  new  profession  has  developed,  known 
as  commercial  engineering,  brought  about  by  the  keen  competition 
of  manufacturers.     The  engineer  of  today  who  is  not  able  to  take 
hold  of  a  proposition  and  figure  results  from  a  business  standpoint  is 
likely  to  be  left  at  the  post.     The  Panama  Canal  is  not  being  built  as 
.  a  triumphal  exploit   of    engineering   skill,    but    because 

Value  of  it   will    cheapen    the   cost  of   ocean  transportation ;    the 

Commercial  Lucian  cut-off  on  the  Southern  Pacific,  with  its  thirteen 
miles  of  trestle-work  over  Great  Salt  Lake,  although  it 
represents  the  acme  of  achievement  in  railroad  construction,  was  not 
built  as  a  scientific  experiment,  but  was  brought  about  because  by  this 
method  Oriental  freight  could  be  put  from  San  Francisco  into  the 
Eastern  markets  at  so  much  less  per  ton. 

This  is  the  great  and,  in  fact,  the  only  idea  for  any  young  man  to 
keep  in  mind  when  leaving  college  and  starting  in  for  himself.  The 
majority  of  men  within  my  hearing  today  will,  no  doubt,  on  the  com- 
pletion of  their  college  course,  find  their  way  into  the  employ  of  some 
manufacturing  concern.  The  question  will  be,  then  (if  the  young  man 
intends  to  make  his  mark),  not  how  nicely  can  he  sketch  a  plan  on  a 
piece  of  tracing-cloth,  or  how  clearly  can  he  elucidate  upon  the  many  the- 
ories of  applied  mechanics,  but  how  much  of  a  saving  can 
Education.  ^e  snow  in  sn°P  management?  How  much  can  he  cheap- 
en the  production  of  some  particular  article?  What  can 
he  do  to  help  tone  up  the  plant  so  that  the  best  results  can  be  ob- 
tained from  his  particular  department?  These  are  the  problems  he 
will  have  before  him,  and  these  only  must  be  kept  in  mind  if  he  expects 
to  make  a  showing  worthy  of  note,  and  of  sufficient  importance  to  attract 
the  attention  of  the  head  of  the  concern. 

Among  practical,  everyday  shop  men  the  average  technical  grad- 
uate is  given  very  little  consideration.  This,  of  course,  may  be  the 
misfortune  of  the  shop  men  or  it  may  be  the  effect  of  the  attitude  of 
the  graduate.  The  fact  remains  that  there  is  a  great  deal  of  truth  in 
the  statement.  In  nine  cases  out  of  ten  when  a  technical  graduate 
secures  a  position  in  a  shop  of  any  kind  he  is  considered  of  about  as 

(59) 


60  Betterment  Briefs. 

much  use  as  an  ordinary  helper,  or  he  is  classed  under  the  rather  am- 
biguous title  of  special  apprentice,  and  duties  are  assigned  him  in  about 
the  same  proportion.  The  graduates  themselves,  in  my  experience, 
College  Men  are  greatly  responsible  for  this  state  of  affairs.  They 
in  Machine  enter  a  shop  knowing  almost  to  a  certainty  that 
this  exists,  yet  in  many  instances  they  make  no  effort 
to  change  the  general  opinion.  They  take  hold  of  the  work  that 
is  given  them  in  a  rather  perfunctory  manner,  and  seem  incapable, 
in  many  cases,  of  developing  ideas  on  the  subject  at  hand,  and 
in  a  short  time  they  find  themselves  moving  in  the  same  old  rut  of 
shop  routine  that  may  have  existed  ever  since  the  shop  was  built.  In- 
stead of  keeping  their  eyes  open  for  chances  for  improvements  and  tak- 
ing them  up  in  the  proper  manner,  they  are  content  to  allow  things  to 
drag  along  with  as  much  unconcern  as  if  they  had  never  been  blessed 
with  advantages  of  any  kind. 

This  is  the  point  that  I  want  to  impress  on  your  minds:  Be  on 
the  lookout  for  improvements  in  methods  of  all  kinds  at  all  times. 
Don't  think  for  a  moment  that  I  am  decrying  mechanical  training 
simply  because  a  great  many  of  the  graduates  have  been  made  seeming 
failures.  The  trained  men  are  the  men  that  are  needed ;  the  technical 
men  are  the  men  that  have  to  fill  the  important  places  in  all  cases. 
They  must  be  the  pioneers! 

The  theories  of  today  become  the  practices  of  tomorrow,  and  the 
men  who  can  look  ahead  and  anticipate  a  demand  are  the  men  that 
are  going  to  win  in  the  long  run.  Have  a  systematic  line  of  investiga- 
tion that  you  intend  to  carry  out  if  ever  you  enter  a  shop,  no  matter 
what  may  be  its  kind  of  output.  Keep  the  cost  of  production  ever  in 
your  mind,  and  let  no  chance  escape  you  if  you  see  an  opening  of  any 
kind  for  improvement. 

If  you  enter  a  machine  shop  don't  be  content  with  doing  whatever 
little  detail  you  may  be  assigned  to  on  some  particular  bench  or  machine. 
Note  the  entire  layout  of  the  plant.  See  what  kind  of  power  they  are 
using.  Note  the  method  of  transmission.  Keep  an  eye  on  the  class 
of  machines  in  service;  also  their  condition.  Check  up  the  speeds  of 
shafting  at  the  first  opportunity.  Note  the  method  of  making  tools. 
Read  up  on  tool  steels.  Keep  in  touch  with  the  newest 
Pointers!  an(*  latest  catalogs  on  machinery.  Compare  the  methods 

with  other  shops.  Check  the  price  lists  of  similar  articles 
made  in  other  parts  of  the  country.  In  fact,  familiarize  yourself  with 
every  item  of  interest  in  any  way  connected  with  the  article  in 


Practical  Advice  to  College  Men. 


61 


FIG.  34 — MILLING  CUTTERS,  REAMERS  AND  HIGH-SPEED  TOOLS,  MANUFACTURED 
IN  A  RAILROAD  SHOP  TOOL-ROOM  UNDER  THE  DIRECTION  OF  A  MODERN  TOOL-ROOM 

FOREMAN. 


Betterment  Briefs. 


FIG.   35 — LARGE   MILLING   CUTTER   FINISHING   FOUR   ROWS  OF  DRIVING- BOX 
SHOES  AT  ONE  TIME.     SUGGESTION  OF  MACHINE  SHOP  FOREMAN. 


Practical  Advice  to  College  Men. 


FIG.  36 — LARGE  COMPOUND  MILLING  CUTTER  FINISHING  SEVEN  SURFACES  AT 
ONE  TIME.  SHOWING  A  FOREMAN  WHO  is  SPECIALLY  INTERESTED  IN  IMPROVED  DE- 
VICES OF  THIS  KIND. 


Practical  Advice  to  College  Men.  65 

question.  You  will  be  surprised  how  soon  you  are  noted  by  some 
official  of  the  organization.  I  have  had  too  many  years  of  actual 
experience  in  shop  work  not  to  know  that  I  am  speaking  the  exact 
truth.  If  you  are  in  the  designing  department,  don't  put  in  your  time 
seeing  how  nice  a  set  of  lines  you  can  embellish  with  graceful  curves, 
but  see  how  much  machine  work  you  can  eliminate  in  the  assembling- 
room.  No  one  will  deny  that  the  sale  of  any  article,  no  matter  what  it 
may  be,  is  very  greatly  affected  by  its  general  appearance.  It  must  look 
neat,  as  well  as  be  reliable,  but  the  days  of  elaborate  finish  are  past. 

There  was  a  day  when  buildings  were  equipped  with  heavy  trappings 
of  all  descriptions  and  locomotives  were  encircled  with  rings  of  polished 
brass,  but  the  best  sellers  of  all  merchantable  articles  today  are  those 
of  the  plainest  finish. 

It  is  not  how  nice  does  a  locomotive  look  today;  it  is  how  many 
tons  can  it  haul.  It  is  not  what  sort  of  a  polish  do  you  have  on  your 
line  shaft ;  it  is  how  many  revolutions  can  it  make  a  minute.  It  is  not 
what  style  of  architecture  is  your  furnace  built  in ;  it  is  how  many  tons 
of  pig  iron  can  it  turn  out  in  twenty-four  hours. 

I  believe,  however,  I  have  talked  long  enough  on  generalities,  and 
I  think,  perhaps,  I  could  demonstrate  to  you  much  more  clearly  with 
the  following  illustrations,  than  I  could  explain  otherwise  what  I  mean 
when  I  speak  of  "toning  up"  a  plant. 

After  this  introductory  address  about  150  lantern  slides  were  shown, 
illustrative  of  these  methods  of  "toning  up"  as  applied  to  railway  shop 
work.  The  first  group  of  slides  dealt  with  the  general  layout  and  of 
material  storage  and  handling  arrangements  of  a  large  shop.1  The 
next  group  dealt  with  the  methods  of  improving  machine  belting,  this 
being  one  of  the  first  points  to  be  taken  up  when  shop 
Betterment  betterment  is  undertaken,  as  by  this  alone  the  efficiency 
of  the  machines  will  be  increased  as  a  whole  from  10  to 
30  per  cent.2  The  third  series  showed  the  changes  in  shop  methods,  ma- 
chine tools  and  devices,  incident  to  the  use  of  the  new  high-speed  alloy 
tool  steels  developed  since  the  introduction  of  the  Taylor- White  process. 
After  these  were  shown  some  views  of  machine  betterments  necessitated 
by  the  intensive  shop  production  due  to  the  use  of  these  high-speed 
heavy-service  tools,  such  as  the  substitution  of  steel  for  cast-iron  gears, 
the  increase  in  size  of  driving  and  feed  pulleys  and  gears,  the  strength- 
ening of  steady  rests,  housings,  etc.3  Then  followed  illustrations  of  a 

1  For  lay-outs  of  representative  railway  shops,  see  chapter  2,  "  Railway  Shop  Up  to  Date." 

2  See  p.  120  for  an  efficient  method  of  keeping  belts  up  in  shape. 

3  See  pp.  39,  48,  125,  133,  for  illustrations  and  descriptions  of  typical  machine  betterments. 


OF   THE 

UNIVERSITY 


66  Betterment  Briefs. 

number  of  special  devices  for  use  in  railway  shops,  showing  how,  by 
the  exercise  of  a  little  ingenuity  in  the  tool-room,  the  cost  of  machin- 
ing many  special  locomotive  parts  could  be  greatly  reduced., 

Next  after  these  were  shown  special  jigs  for  use  on  the  machines, 
and  then  followed  a  long  series  of  slides  on  the  subject  of  tool  standard- 
ization for  an  entire  railway  system;  i.  e.,  standardizing  punches,  drills, 
reamers  for  crosshead,  knuckle  pin,  and  ball  joint  work,  flue  rollers, 
etc.  A  number  of  views  were  then  given  of  a  recent  very  light  air 
motor  that  has  many  advantages  for  work  in  close  quarters,  and  on 
account  of  its  efficiency.  Following  these,  various  devices  for  use  in 
erecting  floor  work  were  shown,  cylinder-boring  machines,  valve-facing 
device,  a  convenient  portable  air  hoist  for  main  air  reservoirs  on  engines, 
guide  lining  device,  valve  bushing  extractor,  etc. 

Mr.  Jacobs  concluded  his  address  with  a  very  interesting  description 
of  the  individual  effort  system  for  rewarding  labor  as  applied  in  a  large 
shop  to  effect  economical  production  and  to  reduce  to  a  satisfactory 
basis  the  wage  problem. — An  abstract  of  an  address  by  H.  W.  JACOBS 
before  the  engineering  students  of  the  University  of  Kansas,  as  published 
by  the  American  Engineer  and  Railroad  Journal,  April,  1906. 


PRACTICAL  ADVICE  TO  COLLEGE  MEN. 

EDITORIAL  COMMENT  BY  AMERICAN  ENGINEER  AND  RAILROAD  JOURNAL,  APRIL,  1906. 

Mr.  Jacobs's  address  to  college  students,  which  is  partially  reproduced  on 
another  page,  should  be  read  by  all  those  who  are  interested  in  the  matter  of  shop 
production.  It  is  not  surprising  that  the  engineering  colleges  have  neglected 
to  impress  the  students  with  the  importance  of  the  cost  of  production.  It  is 
only  during  the  past  few  years  that  the  manufacturing  concerns  have  waked  up 
to  the  importance  of  this  problem,  and  apparently  some  of  the  railroad  shop 
managements  are  still  blissfully  unaware  of  it.  The  successful  shop  manager  is 
one  who  realizes  the  importance  of  studying  the  cost  of  production  with  a  view 
to  reducing  it  and  increasing  the  shop  output. 


ORGANIZATION  AND    EFFICIENCY  IN    THE  RAILWAY 

MACHINE  SHOP. 

(ADVANCE  ANNOUNCEMENT  IN  THE  ENGINEERING  MAGAZINE.) 

Because  the  railway  shop  is  not  competitive — because  it  does  not  have  to 
study  expenses  closely  so  as  to  undersell  a  rival  manufacturing  a  similar  product — 
because  it  did  not  have  to  measure  its  costs  against  energetic  and  alert  business 
rivals — it  has  been  slow  to  adopt  the  methods  of  shop  betterment  and  works 
organization  which  have  been  almost  universally  adopted  into  manufacturing 
concerns. 

Lately,  however,  the  close  scrutiny  of  operating  expenses  has  roused  the  me- 
chanical departments  of  our  railways  to  a  keen  and  most  active  study  of  the 
best  ideas  and  methods  adaptable  to  the  railway  machine  shop,  and  there  has 
been  a  great  awakening,  and  some  of  the  large  American  transcontinental  roads 
have  gone  as  far  perhaps  as  any  commercial  establishment  in  studying  to  bring 
their  work  down  to  a  minimum  cost  per  unit.  The  new  movement  is  full  of  in- 
terest and  importance,  and  not  only  to  the  man  in  charge  of  motive  power  and 
equipment,  or  of  the  shops  themselves  or  any  department  of  them,  but  also  to 
the  manufacturer  of  modern  tools  and  materials.  It  has  opened  new  opportu- 
nities for  men  and  machinery  already  in  many  of  the  larger  railroads,  and  it  will 
inevitably  extend  rapidly  to  all,  large  and  small. 

Mr.  Jacobs  is  one  of  the  leaders  in  this  movement,  and  has  made  the  greatest 
success  in  carrying  out  this  work.  He  is  engaged  in  it  now,  and  the  methods 
he  describes  have  been  tried  out  in  the  shops  of  one  of  the  greatest  transconti- 
nental lines.  Everything  he  suggests  is  practical — the  result  of  thorough  trial 
and  perfection  under  working  conditions.  He  does  not  speculate  as  to  what 
might  be  done,  but  tells  what  has  been  done,  how  it  was  done,  and  what  profits 
resulted.  And  the  pictures  bring  the  actual  work  of  the  shop,  and  the  practical 
improvements,  directly  before  the  eye  of  the  reader;  they  tell  a  story  as  valuable 
as  that  of  the  text. — THE  EDITORS. 


(67) 


CONTENTS. 

I.    SPECIALIZING  AND  CENTRALIZING  THE  OPERATION  AND  EQUIPMENT. 

Special  Character  of  the  Railway  Shop. — How  Far  General  Organization 
Methods  are  Applicable. — Notable  Instances. — The  Question  of  Sala- 
ries.— Centralizing  the  Shop  Work. — Stores. — Room  Records. — The 
Value  of  Figures. 

II.    THE  GENERAL  ASPECTS  OF  STANDARDIZATION. 

Methods  of  Standardization. — The  Practice  of  Four  Great  Railway  Sys- 
tems.— Standard  Specifications  for  Parts. — Parts  Interchangeable  for 
all  Types. — Standard  Tools  for  Special  Parts. — Gradual  Replacement 
of  Non-Standard  Machinery.— A  Policy  Outlined.— Sub-Stores.— Diffi- 
culties with  Foremen. — Departmental  Conferences. — Directing  the 
Shopping  of  Engines. — The  Possible  Savings. 

III.  CENTRALIZATION   AND    BALANCE    OF   MACHINE-TOOL   EQUIPMENT   ON  AN 

ENTIRE  RAILROAD. 

Re-design  of  Patterns. — Study  of  Metal  Supply. — Centralizing  Foundry 
Work.— The  Blacksmith  Shop.— Balancing  the  Machine-Tool  Equip- 
ment.— The  Personal  Equation  of  Master  Mechanics. — Danger  of  Over- 
Equipment. — General  Inventory  of  Tools. — Transfer  and  Redistribu- 
tion.— Introduction  of  Alloy  Steel. — Comparative  Performances  De- 
scribed and  Illustrated. — Supervision  of  the  Tool  Account. — Selection 
and  Design  of  Tools. — Adaptation  and  Rebuilding  of  Old  Machines. — 
The  Theory  of  Machine-Tool  Economy. — Shafting  and  Belting. — 
Examples  of  Re-design. 

IV.  STANDARDIZING  THE  SMALL-TOOL  EQUIPMENT. 

The  Purchase  of  Steel. — Examples  of  Standard  Tools. — How  Adapted  to 
Air  Tools. — To  Boiler  Shop,  Erecting  Shop,  Bench. — Economies  to  be 
Expected.— Alloy-Steel  Tools— Where  to  Use  Them.— Custody  and 
Supervision. — How  to  Keep  Down  Investment. — Functions  of  the  Tool- 
Room. — Its  Operating  Force. — Its  Limits. 

V.    ERECTING-SHOP  ECONOMIES. 

The  Introduction  of  Standards. — Useful  and  Profitable  Devices. — Miscel- 
laneous Economies. — Systematizing  of  Jobs. —  Shop-Order  Manufac- 
turing.— Office  Systems. —  Checks  on  the  Payroll. —  Reward  for  Indi- 
vidual Effort. — Premium  and  Bonus  Systems. —  Education  and  Pub- 
licity. 


(68) 


ORGANIZATION   AND   EFFICIENCY  IN   THE  RAILWAY 

MACHINE  SHOP. 


I.  SPECIALIZING  AND  CENTRALIZING  THE  OPERATION  AND  EQUIPMENT. 

RAILROADS  in  the  United  States  perform  the  functions  of  common 
carriers  and  of  money-makers.  As  carriers,  besides  their  rela- 
tion to  the  land  and  the  people,  they  must  be  adapted  to  the  trade 
of  their  territory  and  connections — in  facilities,  capacity,  and  operative 
efficiency.  As  the  property  of  private  persons,  they  must  be  managed 
and  operated  to  effect  the  greatest  ratio  of  net  earnings  to  investment, 
besides  conforming  to  the  compulsions  of  the  law,  and  to  their  own 
interests  in  commerce.  Men  trained  as  engineers  in  both 
Railways.0  ^ne  scn°°ls  of  induction  and  of  practice,  are  as  a  class 
best  able  to  bring  about  these  results,  as  their  work  is 
constructively  directed  toward  the  end  in  view  after  intelligent  analysis 
of  actual  conditions.  We  shall  deal  with  some  concrete  problems  of 
the  engineer  in  relation  to  the  maintenance  of  operative  efficiency  of 
the  motive  power  and  rolling  equipment — those  most  active  factors  of 
earning  power  and  expense  in  existing  steam  roads. 

To  move  the  traffic  of  a  road,  locomotives  and  cars  are  required. 
These  must  be  built,  maintained  in  running  order,  repaired,  replaced, 
and  must  be  designed  with  reference  to  safety,  efficiency  and  operative 
economy,  cost,  adaptability,  durability,  simplicity  and  interchangeabil- 
ity  of  parts,  and  facility  of  repairs. 

Whether  a  road  builds  its  own  equipment  or  not,  it  has  a  large  voice 
in  specifying  design,  and  it  must  keep  up  the  running  condition;  these 
functions  require  both  the  mechanical  and  the  industrial  engineer. 

Great  manufactures,  such  as  the  steel  industry,  have  been  suc- 
cessful on  a  large  scale.  The  methods  under  which  they  thrived  are 
applicable  wherever  there  are  manufacturing  shops.  Railroads  have 
been  slow  to  modernize  their  shop  methods  and  to  refine  their  mechan- 
ical practice,  because  the  chief  spur  is  to  earn  dividends  by  means  of 
Commercial  transportation.  They  are  only  very  indirectly  affected 
Manufacturing  by  the  forces  governing  competitive  and  economical 
manufacture  in  commercial  enterprises,  and  less  indi- 
rectly by  the  forces  making  for  greater  serviceability  of  equipment. 
But  if  the  experience  of  the  commercial  manufactories  is  profited 

(69) 


70  Betterment  Briefs. 

by,  and  modern  methods  adopted  wholesale,  modified  to  suit  such 
conditions  as  may  be  peculiar  to  railroads;  if  the  improved  products, 
developed  at  such  cost  in  the  commercial  world,  are  but ,  taken  as 
they  are  found,  and  used  effectively,  great  improvements  in  operative 
and  maintenance  efficiencies  and  economies  will  ensue,  resulting  in  the 
two-fold  gain  of  lowered  running  cost  and  fixed  charges,  together  with 
capacity  for  handling  larger  business,  with  greater  gross,  and  redoubled 
net  earnings. 

All  this  is  not  mere  argument,  but  is  demonstrated  by  actual  in- 
stances, late  and  near  at  hand.  The  managements  of  the  roads  are 
waking  up  to  these  capabilities  and  rapidly  availing  themselves  of 
them.  Cast  steel  and  malleable  iron  are  substituted  for  cast  and 
wrought  iron,  wherever  they  may  with  advantage  be  used.  Patterns 
were  re-designed,  re-classified  and  standardized,  many  being  obsoleted, 
surplus  of  material  being  done  away  with  both  on  account  of  the  need- 
less higher  first  cost  of  the  casting,  and  the  increased  time  of  machin- 
ing; bolt  holes  are  cored  so  as  not  to  require  drilling,  and  design  is 
strengthened  to  take  care  of  weaknesses  shown  by  exhaustive  records 
of  all  classes  of  breakage  to  parts  of  motive  power  and  rolling  equip- 
ment ;  locomotive  and  car  elements  are  standardized  as 
Equipment  far  as  practicable,  and  new  equipment  is  ordered  to  con- 
and  Shop  form  to  these  specifications.  The  Harriman  lines  and  the 

Rock  Island  have  been  conspicuous  examples  of  such 
standardization,  broadly  conceived  and  comprehensively  carried  out. 
Tests  are  becoming  more  thorough  and  less  perfunctory,  and  as 
a  result,  design  is  continually  changing  for  the  better.  Not  only  is 
there  thus  a  general  tendency  toward  improvement  in  quality  and 
efficiency  of  equipment,  but  there  is  also  a  growing  determination  to 
provide  the  very  best  shop  facilities  for  taking  care  of  repair  and  re- 
placement, as  at  the  Moline  (Rock  Island),  Topeka  (Santa  Fe),  Col- 
linwood  (Lake  Shore)  Omaha  (Union  Pacific),  and  other  large  recent 
shops.  And  in  these  shops,  centralized,  large,  there  is  a  growing  effort 
toward  intelligent  systematization  of  manufacture,  toward  rapid  pro- 
duction at  low  cost,  and  toward  using  men  and  machines  to  full  eco- 
nomical capacity. 

The  direction  in  which  railroads  are  slowly  moving  is  the  right  one ; 
this  paper  advocates  some  of  the  means  by  which  these  results  can  be 
attained  in  a  still  larger  way. 

In  the  first  place,  salaries  and  wages  are  too  low.  I  am  no  advocate 
of  increased  pay-rolls ;  but  it  is  shown  in  practice  that  five  men  worth 


Centralizing  Shop  Operations. 


71 


FlG.    37 A    BRAKE-SHOE    KEY    FORGING    DEVICE    DESIGNED    BY    A  BLACKSMITH 

SHOP  FOREMAN.  IT  FORGES  TWO  KEYS  AT  ONE  TIME  FROM  SCRAP  IRON,  TURNING 
THEM  OUT  BY  THE  THOUSANDS  AT  VERY  LITTLE  COST,  WHERE  FORMERLY  THEY 
WERE  MADE  LABORIOUSLY  BY  HAND.  WlTH  THE  ENORMOUS  NUMBER  OF  KEYS 
USED  ON  A  RAILROAD  HANDLING  A  LARGE  FREIGHT  BUSINESS,  AN  ITEM  OF  THIS 
KIND  IS  WELL  WORTH  CONSIDERING. 


Betterment  Briefs. 


FIG.  38 — SHEAR  WHICH  TRIMS  AND  BENDS  SHOE  KEYS  IN  ONE  OPERATION.  THE 
KEYS  ARE  FORGED  IN  THE  MACHINE  SHOWN  ON  THE  PRECEDING  PAGE.  DESIGNED 
BY  BLACKSMITH  FOREMAN. 


Centralizing  Shop  Operations.  73 

$4  a  day  each  can  do  as  much  as  ten  $3  men,  and  the  same  is  true  of  a 
foreman  earning  $80  or  $90  compared  to  one  earning 
fjjfjJJJtof  and  $150  to  $200;  or  of  an  official  belonging  to  the  $200  class 
compared  to  one  belonging  to  the  $600  class.  The  high- 
priced  man  is  not  necessarily  the  best;  but  for  the  high  price  the 
best  can  be  secured.  It  is  manifestly  false  economy  to  pay  a  master 
mechanic  $175  a  month,  and  give  him  charge  over  one  thousand  or 
two  thousand  men  with  an  aggregate  pay-roll  of  $60,000  to  $100,000, 
when  an  intelligent  $300  man,  bringing  perhaps  in  his  train  a  $500 
staff  of  assistants  and  specialists,  can  in  six  months  lop  off  15  to  30  per 
cent  of  this  pay-roll,  and  at  the  same  time  by  system  and  specialization 
and  a  method  of  reward  according  to  merit,  give  increased  and 
better  service. 

Similarly,  a  $90  foreman  is  not  an  economical  man  to  whom  to  en- 
trust the  requisitioning  of  thousands  of  dollars'  worth  of  material  each 
month; .  he  will  generally  order  perfunctorily  and  far  beyond  his  needs, 
and  it  is  not  usual  for  his  requisitions  to  be  effectively  checked  up. 
There  is,  for  example,  the  case  of  a  road  that  had  but  two  engines  of 
one  particular  class,  under  experiment,  which  they  would  transfer 
from  one  division  to  another  to  get  figures  on  their  service.  After 
they  had  been  in  use  about  two  years  and  had  been  overhauled  in  three 
different  places,  the  president  called  for  an  itemized  expense  statement ; 
and  when  the  supplies  were  checked  up  at  the  different  stores  there 
were  found  to  be  fourteen  sets  of  grates,  nine  sets  of  cylinder-heads, 
four  sets  of  pistons,  two  complete  sets  of  rods,  besides  numerous  cylinder- 
head  casings,  valve  packings,  piston  rings,  etc., — more  stock,  in  fact, 
than  these  two  engines  would  use  in  ten  years  of  hard  service.  This 
-I  ,  is  perhaps  an  unusual  case,  but  it  is  actual,  and  no  one 

Showing  Ex-  was  to  blame  but  the  system.  Each  foreman  at  the 
SuperrisioneaP  different  points  thought  it  was  his  duty  to  keep  up  the 
supplies,  and  in  a  sense  he  was  right,  as  no  one  wished 
to  score  a  failure  while  the  engines  were  in  his  particular  territory. 
But  if  the  foreman  had  been  a  man  of  good  judgment,  he  would 
have  consulted  the  storekeepers  and  others  before  ordering  indiscrimi- 
nately, and  if  there  had  been  higher  officials  who  would  not  have  let 
such  a  condition  come  into  effect,  but  would  have  permitted  the  order- 
ing only  of  what  was  necessary,  and  would  have  intelligently  transferred 
the  material  on  hand  as  became  requisite,  all  this  needless  investment 
in  new  material  would  have  been  obviated.  Multiply  this  cost  by  the 
number  of  engines  on  a  road,  and  perhaps  cut  the  total  in  two  on  account 


74  Betterment  Briefs. 

of  its  being  an  exceptional  case,  and  the  prevalent  condition  on  many  a 
road  today  will  be  pictured.  Plainly,  almost  no  salary  is  too  high  if 
it  will  secure  the  prevention  and  correction  of  this  sort  of  practice. 

There  is  now  and  then  in  a  railroad  shop  a  foreman  whose  ideas  are 
of  a  special  merit,  which,  if  encouraged,  can  be  of  thousands  of  dollars 
benefit  to  a  company.1  Such  is  the  case  of  the  blacksmith  foreman 
who  designed  the  brakeshoe-key  forging  machine  here  illustrated.  This 
Value  of  machine  was  reconstructed  from  an  old  bulldozer,  and 

Foremen  forges  two  brake-shoe  keys  at  a  time  from  scrap  car  bolts, 

with  Ideas.  Whereas  these  keys  used  to  be  made  laboriously  by  hand^ 
they  are  now  turned  out  by  the  thousand  at  very  little  cost.  With 
the  enormous  number  of  brakeshoe  keys  used  on  a  railroad  han- 
dling an  immense  freight  business,  an  item  of  this  kind  is  well  worth 
considerable  attention. 

Centralization,  as  applied  to  shop  work  in  the  railway  world,  is  not 
exactly  a  new  idea,  although  the  subject  has  been  more  or  less  agi- 
tated by  manufacturing  concerns  for  years,  and  to  this  is  largely  due 
the  success  of  some  of  our  great  modern  trusts.  But 'the  development 
of  this  policy  in  railway  lines  is  quite  recent.  The  stride  it  has  made 
Centralized  *n  ^e  immediate  past,  and  which  it  is  at  present  making 
Manufacture  among  the  railways  of  the  United  States,  is  worthy  not 
of  Parts.  onjv  Q£  coniment,  but  of  the  serious  consideration  of 

every  railway  official  who  believes  in  "Economy  and  Efficient  Service." 

There  are  many  things  to  be  considered  when  taking  up  a  propo- 
sition of  this  kind,  involving  serious  and  complicated  problems  which 
must  be  decided  upon  before  a  successful  working  basis  can  be  estab- 
lished. First  of  all,  should  be  considered  the  location  of  the  railway 
in  question,  its  mileage,  and  general  layout,  and  particularly  the  loca- 
tion of  the  division  points  and  headquarters,  shops,  etc.,  with  refer- 
ence to  the  original  base  of  supplies. 

It  would  not  pay,  for  instance,  for  a  straight  overland  line,  say  of 
1,500  or  2,000  miles  in  length,  with  good  facilities,  foundries,  etc.,  at 
each  end  of  the  line,  to  decide  to  manufacture  all  of  the  material  at 
some  point  near  the  middle  of  the  line,  where  no  foundry  or  other 
needed  equipment  was  located.  I  have  in  mind  a  certain  railway, 
whose  machine  shop  was  located  near  its  western  terminal ;  its  largest 
car  shop  was  a  little  farther  east,  and  it  bought  its  wheels  from  a  foundry 
at  its  extreme  eastern  terminal.  With  the  idea  of  centralization  of 
work  in  mind,  the  people  in  charge  ordered  all  wheels  for  car  work 

1See  pp.  31,  85,  102  for  other  improvements  and  devices  suggested  by  foremen. 


Centralizing  Shop  Operations.  75 


FIG.  39 — THE  PRODUCT  OF  A  FEW  DAYS'  WORK  ON  THE  BRAKE-SHOE  FORGING 
AND  TRIMMING  MACHINES. 


76 


Betterment  Briefs. 


FIG.  40 — TEMPLATE  USED  IN  DRILLING  COMPOUND  CYLINDERS  FOR  CYLINDER 
HEAD  STUDS.  THIS  SAVES  HOURS  OF  WORK  IN  LAYING  OFF  THESE  HOLES  BY  HAND 
AND  INSURES  ABSOLUTE  ACCURACY  AND  INTERCHANGEABILITY. 


Centralizing  Shop  Operations.  77 

fitted  up  at  the  western  end.  This  caused  all  new  wheels  to  be  hauled 
back  after  being  mounted.  It  also  caused  all  old  wheels  to  be  sent 
jj  .  . .  west  to  be  stripped,  and  then  hauled  back  the  entire 
Conditions  length  of  the  line  as  scrap.  This  haul  in  freight  alone, 
at  one-half  cent  Per  ton  mile,- cost  $1,200  in  a  month, 
besides  causing  an  extra  delay  of  at  least  one  day  in 
delivery  from  the  time  the  wheels  left  the  foundry  until  the  time 
when  they  were  mounted  and  ready  for  the  cars.  Of  course,  the  argu- 
ment can  be  made  that  centralization  was  not  at  fault,  but  rather  the 
location  of  the  shop  with  reference  to  the  base  of  supply.  This  is  in- 
deed true,  and  all  this  trouble  could  be  avoided  by  relocating  the  shop. 
But  this  discussion  is  not  intended  to  include  the  provision  of  new  equip- 
ment; it  is  intended  to  confine  the  consideration  to  plans  which  will 
work  with  the  present  equipment  of  the  road  in  question.  There  is 
not  one  railway  in  twenty  now  in  a  position  to  consider  the  rebuilding 
of  all  its  shops,  or  even  the  relocation  of  its  base  of  supply.  We  must 
deal  with  conditions  as  we  find  them. 

A  shop  that  turns  out  finished  material,  whether  it  be  pilots  or 
petticoats,  is  a  manufacturing  concern  or  establishment,  and  must  be 
recognized  as  such.  It  requires  no  large  array  of  figures  to  prove  that 
the  larger  the  output  of  a  given  article,  the  lower  will  be  the  labor  cost 
per  piece.  If  a  man  can  turn  out  six  brasses,  for  example,  in  one  lot 
at  a  given  rate,  it  stands  to  reason  that  he  ought  to  turn  out  twenty 
at  one  time  at  a  reduced  rate  per  brass.  This  is  true  of  any  other  article 
needed  in  railway  work.  The  fewer  the  changes  of  tools  and  settings 
to  make,  the  less  the  number  of  tools  to  keep  up ;  and  the  more  familiar 
the  workman  becomes  with  each  particular  class  of  work,  the  larger 
are  the  opportunities  for  the  reduction  of  cost.  Centralization  of  work 
allows  for  the  full  development  of  the  specialist,  which  is  the  greater 
factor  in  the  labor  end  of  production.  With  one  main  shop  and  a 

-  f       foundry  in  connection  with  it,  the  furnishing  of  material 

Economy  of 

Centralized  ready  for  service  for  all  points  comes  in  line  as  naturally 
Manufacture.  ag  a  wrappjng  department  in  a  large  mercantile  house. 
There  is  an  even  and  logical  sequence  of  operations  in  the 
movement  of  an  article  from  the  foundry  or  furnace  to  its  place 
of  service.  This  method  reduces  the  amount  of  stock  to  be  car- 
ried, and  consequently  does  away  with  all  the  expense  of  extra 
handling  of  stock,  etc.  It  reduces  the  amount  of  tools,  jigs,  and  ma- 
chines required  to  get  the  stuff  in  shape  for  service.  For  instance, 
it  requires  a  certain  expensive  machine,  a  set  of  jigs,  angle  plates,  tool- 


78  Betterment  Briefs. 

holders,  etc.,  to  prepare  properly  shoes  and  wedges,  or  driving  boxes, 
for  use  on  an  engine.1  If  there  are  eighteen  shops  on  the  road  where 
these  are  to  be  used,  this  calls  for  eighteen  sets  of  tools,  jigs,  etc.,  for 
this  particular  article.  With  this  job  specialized  and  all  done  at  one 
place,  the  chances  are  that  one  set  of  these  tools,  jigs,  etc.,  would  be 
sufficient  to  supply  the  entire  equipment.  Clearly,  this  would  cut  out 
The  Use  of  seventeen  no -longer -needed  machines,  sets  of  tools, 
Jigs  and  angle  plates,  jigs,  etc.,  besides  the  work  and  the  man 

Templates.  formerly  required  at  each  place,  to  fit  up  and  keep  them 
in  good  order.  On  one  road  where  this  was  done  it  has  secured  a  reduc- 
tion in  the  small  item  of  maintenance  of  machinery  and  tools,  of 
$180,000  per  year. 

This  particular  template  here  illustrated  saves  hours  of  work  in  lay- 
ing cylinders  off  for  the  stud  and  bolt  holes  and  insures  absolute  ac- 
curacy and  interchangeability,  and  if  the  cylinders  are  completely 
finished  before  sending  out  to  a  smaller  shop,  but  the  one  template  is 
required. 

A  jig  or  tool  in  continuous  action  is  a  money-saver,  and  there  can- 
not be  too  many  under  these  conditions.  A  jig  or  tool  of  any  kind, 
lying  idle,  is  so  much  "dead  capital"  or  money  lost.  Take  the  basis 
of  eighteen  shops  and  eliminate  seventeen  sets  of  tools,  plates,  etc.,  for 
each  special  part  of  a  car  or  locomotive,  and  the  figures  run  away  up 
into  the  thousands. 

The  illustration  of  knuckle-pin-hole  reamers  shows  a  case  of  a  money- 
making  tool.  At  the  top  of  the  pile  (page  79)  will  be  noted  standard 
gauges.  These  are  supplied  to  each  shop  and  large  roundhouse  and  a 
set  of  kunckle-pin  reamers  for  the  classes  of  engines  dependent  there. 
An  engine  comes  in  with  a  knuckle  pin  to  be  replaced ;  the  hole  is  worn 
oblong;  there  are  four  of  each  nominal  size  of  these  reamers,  varying 
Standard  from  actual  size  to  one-eighth  inch  above,  by  thirty- 

Knuckle-Pin  seconds.  The  hole  is  bored  out  by  the  smallest  reamer 
Reamers.  possible,  and  standard  taper  knuckle  pins,  completely  fin- 

ished and  kept  in  stock,  supplied  from  the  general  shop  where  centralized 
manufacturing  is  carried  on,  are  applied.  This  process  results  in  great 
economy  of  time  in  a  roundhouse.  The  reamers  are  tried,  frequently, 
by  gauge,  and  when  worn  small  are  shipped  in  to  the  central  tool-room 
for  re-grinding  and  re-setting  of  the  cutting  edges. 

The  solution  lies  largely  in  the  hands  of  the  supply  department, 
more  there  than  in  any  other.  The  hearty  cooperation  of  the  mechanical 

*See  p.  13  for  description  of  special  milling  device  for  finishing  eccentric  halves. 


I  UNIVERSITY 


CF 


Centralizing  Shop  Operations. 


79 


FIG.    41 — SET   OF   STANDARD   KNUCKLE-PIN   HOLE  REAMERS,  MANUFACTURED 

TO  WITHIN  .003  OF  SIZE  IN  A  CENTRALIZED  TOOL-ROOM.  AT  THE  TOP  OF  THIS  PILE 
OF  REAMERS  WILL  BE  NOTED  STANDARD  GAUGES.  THESE  ARE  SUPPLIED  TO  EACH 
SHOP  AND  LARGE  ROUND-HOUSES,  AND  A  SET  OF  KNUCKLE-PIN  REAMERS  FOR  THE 
PARTICULAR  CLASSES  OF  LOCOMOTIVES  IN  SERVICE.  WHEN  WORN,  THE  REAMERS 
ARE  SHIPPED  BACK  TO  THE  CENTRAL  TOOL-ROOM  FOR  REGRINDING  AND  SETTING. 


80 


Betterment  Briefs. 


FIG.  42 — GROUP  OF  ANGLE  DEVICES  FOR  DRILLING  WITH  AIR  MOTORS  IN  CLOSE 
QUARTERS,  MADE  IN  CENTRAL  TOOL-ROOM. 


Centralizing  Shop  Operations.  81 

department  is  an  absolute  necessity,  but  the  supply  or  store  department 
should  be  the  prime  mover.  It  is  the  store  department  that  should 
furnish  accurate  figures,  annually,  monthly,  or  on  some  periodical  basis 
of  consumption,  as  it  is  through  this  method  only  that  the  stock  can 
be  kept  alive  at  all  times.  "  Live  "  stock  and  its  proper  care,  is  funda- 
mental to  the  entire  railway-supply  business.1 

The  store  should  have  absolute  figures  on  engines  and  cars,  accord- 
ing to  class  and  location,  with  a  full  set  of  pattern  books  and  forgings, 
planing-mill  lists,  etc.,  right  up  to  date,  at  all  times.  Records  of  tire 
Storehouse  wear>  journal  wear,  fire-box  conditions,  mill  records, 
Records  and  changes  in  design,  new  modern  styles,  etc.,  should  always 
Reports.  ke  eagy  o£  acccss  to  the  supply  department.  Records  of 

the  distribution  of  power,  changes  in  location,  new  rules  on  switching 
and  terminal  work  of  all  kinds,  should  always  be  given  to  the  store 
department.  Stated  reports,  preferably  quarterly,  should  be  furnished 
by  all  master  mechanics,  showing  just  what  engines  or  coaches  will  be 
shopped  in  the  following  sixty  days,  and  then,  with  the  tire- wear 
figures,  journal- wear  figures,  etc.,  it  is  easy  to  decide  on  material 
needed.  A  close  check  should  be  kept  by  the  store  people  on  all  en- 
gines and  cars,  according  to  the  classes  and  length  of  time  at  certain 
locations.  The  consumption  of  cylinders;  castings,  timber,  etc.,  at 
these  given  points  in  a  given  time,  say  two  years,  would  give  figures 
that  would  be  accurate  enough  to  work  by.  With  all  this  work  up  and 
a  monthly  check  of  all  engines,  according  to  class,  that  are  repaired  at 
oach  point,  it  should  be  no  trouble  to  keep  plenty  of  material  on  hand, 
and  still  keep  the  stock  at  an  extremely  low  figure. 

On  ten  engines  of  Class  I  type,  for  example,  located  at  five  points, 
showing  a  monthly  consumption  of  two  link-lifter  bushings,  it  would 
be  a  simple  matter  to  cut  up  twenty  feet  of  tubing  and  send  six  bushings, 
or  three  months  supply,  to  each  point.  If  this  is  not  done,  the  chances 
are  that  each  shop  will  order  a  10-  or  16-foot  length,  and  thus  have  over 
100  feet  tied  up,  whereas  one-fifth  of  the  stock  would  have  done  the 
Methods  for  business.  This  example  could  be  carried  out  indefinitely, 
Keeping  until  it  numbered  up  in  the  hundreds,  for  every  point  on 

Down  Stock.  the  system  an(j  for  each  class  of  engine>  Thus  the  store, 

by  an  accurate  and  careful  system  of  record-keeping,  should  have  cor- 
rect figures  on  consumption,  and  then  put  it  up  to  the  shop  people  to 
meet  the  demands.  Let  both  departments  get  together  and  work 
hand-in-hand.  Let  the  shop  know  what  is  expected,  supply  it  with 

xThe  relation  between  the  mechanical  and  store  departments,  p.  171. 


82  Betterment  Briefs. 

material,  and  require  it  to  deliver  the  goods.  Let  the  shop  people 
devise  the  ways  and  means  and  promulgate  the  methods ;  if  the 
store  supplies  the  figures  and  material,  they  are  doing  their  duty;  it 
is  then  up  to  the  shop  people  ;  where  the  stuff  can  be  put  up  the 
cheapest,  there  is  where  it  should  be  done.  If  pilots  can  be  made  at 
one  place  cheaper  than  anywhere  else,  let  that  point  make  the  pilots  ; 
if  piston  rods  can  be  got  cheaper  at  the  same  place,  let  that  point 
make  all  the  piston  rods  for  the  system,  and  so  on  through  the  list. 
After  the  cheapest  point  has  been  settled  upon  for  each  article,  should 
it  be  found  to  pay  to  transfer  certain  machinery  to  another  point, 
do  not  hesitate  to  transfer  it.  Logs  used  to  be  hauled  to  the  saw- 
mills; now  the  saw-mills  are  taken  to  the  timber.  Men  are  like  ma- 
chines— if  it  would  pay  to  transfer  them,  do  not  hesitate  to  do  it.  Do 
not  keep  an  18-K  man  in  a  2-K  shop ;  if  you  cannot  give  him  an 
18-K  shop,  take  him  to  it.  Give  the  best  men  the  best  facilities  and 
the  result  will  justify  the  move  in  every  case. 

If  you  get  accurate  figures,  and  have  the  stock  properly  handled, 
use  the  best  methods  and  labor  in  each  department,  and  have  each 
department  in  the  hands  of  a  good  man,  and  let  his  word  be  a  law  unto 
all — then  the  centralization  of  work  cannot  fail  to  be  a  true  time-winner. 


II.    THE  GENERAL  ASPECTS  OF  STANDARDIZATION. 

In  one  of  the  leading  American  railroad  journals  there  appeared 
within  the  past  year  a  series  of  articles  dealing  with  the  standardization 
of  locomotives  and  of  locomotive  parts,  for  three  railroad  systems :  the 
Rock  Island,  the  Harriman  lines,  and  the  Canadian  Pacific.  The 
Standardization  mctn°d  of  standardization  has  been  so  ably  outlined  and 
of  Locomotive  detailed  in  these  articles  that  I  shall  not  attempt  in  this 
and  Parts.  pjacc  anything  more  than  a  description  of  the  relation 
between  such  standard  engines  and  engine  parts  and  the  shops. 

The  general  standardization  for  the  Rock  Island  was  the  result  of 
recommendations  of  a  "Committee  on  Power,"  appointed  by  direction 
of  the  president.  This  committee  recommended  as  to  the  types  of 
locomotives  that  should  be  adhered  to  in  ordering  future  power,  and 
as  to  the  retirement  and  order  of  retirement  of  the  older 
and  inefficient  classes  of  engines.  A  valuable  and  in- 
structive system  of  determining  depreciation  of  engines 
was  devised  by  this  committee.  The  standard  types  of  engines  decided 


General  Aspects  of  Standardization. 


83 


FIG.  43 — PHOTOGRAPHS    SHOWING   THE  FOUR  TYPES  OF  COMMON  STANDARD 
LOCOMOTIVES  ON  THE  HARRIMAN  LINES. 


84 


Betterment  Briefs. 


FIG.  44— OLD  TYPE  OF  BORING  TOOL  FORMERLY  USED  IN  BORING  EXTENDED 
PISTON-ROD  BUSHINGS. 


General  Aspects  of  Standardization. 


85 


FlG.    45 BOKING    TOOL    AND    REAMER    FOR    FINISHING    EXTENDED    PISTON-ROD 

BUSHINGS.  THIS  TOOL  SUPPLANTED  THE  OLD  BORING  TOOL  USED  FOR  THIS  PUR- 
POSE, DOING  THE  WORK  MORE  ACCURATELY  AND  CHEAPLY.  DESIGN  OF  SPECIAL 
APPRENTICE. 


FIG.  46 — VIEW  OF  EXTENDING  PISTON-ROD  BUSHING  SHOWN  IN 
ON  REAMER  AFTER  THE  BORE  HAS  BEEN  FINISHED. 


PHANTOM' 


86 


Betterment  Briefs. 


FIG.  47 — HIGH-SPEED  STEEL  FLUE-SHEET  CUTTER  MOUNTED  ON  ARBOR  READY 
FOR  USE.  CUTTER  WEIGHS  LESS  THAN  1£  LBS.,  AND  HAS  A  CAPACITY  OF  100 
HOLES  PER  HOUR. 


General  Aspects  of  Standardization.  87 

upon  were,  broadly  given,  two  types,  being  subdivided.  For  passenger 
service,  the  Atlantic,  Pacific,  and  ten-wheel  types  were  selected.  For 
freight,  the  same  ten- wheel  type  with  smaller  drivers,  and  a  light  and 
heavy  consolidation.  For  switching,  the  six-wheel  type. 

On  the  Union  Pacific,  under  the  director  of  maintenance  and  op- 
eration, a  similar  standardization  was  inaugurated.     The 
Standards*        types  selected  were  in  this  case  four,  being  the  same  as 
on  the  Rock  Island  with  the  elimination  of  the  light 
consolidation  and  ten-wheel  types. 

On  the  Canadian  Pacific  the  standardization  covers  broadly  but  three 
types:  the  consolidation,  the  ten-wheel,  and  the  Pacific.  On  the  latter 
Canadian  roa<^  ^ne  Po^cv  was  adopted  of  making  standard  the 

Pacific  parts  for  all  new  engines,  as  with  the  other  two  roads, 

Standards.  an(j  some  Of  these  parts  standard  for  some  classes  of  the 
older  equipment,  or  standard  with  slight  modifications. 

Motive-power  officers,  and  their  immediate  superiors,  having  de- 
termined in  a  large  way  the  types  of  power,  can  with  profit  proceed  to 
a  consideration  of  parts  standardized.     Of  course,  when  standard  speci- 
fications are  drawn  up  for  the  detail  construction  down  to  the  rivet 
holes  and  the  kind  of  cab  fittings  of  a  class  of  engines  ordered  from  a 
locomotive  works,  it  may  be  said  that  the  entire  locomo- 
Standardized.     ^ive  is  standard  ;  all  the  parts  should  in  theory  be  inter- 
changeable between  locomotives  of  this  class  or  type  ; 
moreover,  some  parts  will  be  thus  interchangeable  for  several  or  all 
types.     Such  parts  are  detailed  in  accompanying  list  number  one. 

STANDARD  PART  LIST  No.  1. 

Truck  wheels  and  axle;  trailer  wheels  and  axle;  trailer  trucks;  tender 
trucks,  wheels  and  axle;  driving  axles. 

Frame  spacing  and  cross  sections ;  methods  of  frame  jointing ;  tender  frames ; 
deck  beams;  frame  ties;  expansion  bearings. 

Shoes  and  wedges,  and  wedge  bolts;  driving  boxes,  collars,  and  brasses; 
pedestals ;  truck  boxes. 

Steam  pressure;  boiler-seam  design;  fire-boxes  and  details;  water  space; 
flue  diameter,  thickness,  and  flue  spacing  (see  opposite  page);  crown  bars;  fire 
doors;  stay  bolts;  mud  rings;  grates;  washout  plugs. 

Front-end  diameter;  front-end  rings  and  doors;  exhaust  nozzle;  petticoat 
pipe ;  diaphragm  plate  and  netting ;  exhaust  and  steam  pipe  seats ;  smoke  stack 
diameter;  T  heads. 

Pilots ;   front  beams ;   pilot  braces ;   bullnose  and  pilot  coupler. 

Bells ;   sand  boxes ;   domes ;   headlights ;   safety  valves ;   whistle. 

Cabs;    cab  accessories;    all  cab  fittings;    cab  ventilator;    throttle. 

Air-pumps  bracket ;   air  reservoir. 

Piston  valves  and  valve  rods,  together  with  bushings;    valve  setting. 

Main  and  side-rod  details;  wrist  pins;  knuckle  and  crank  pins  and  bush- 
ings, except  main  crank  pin ;  piston  rod  diameter. 


88  Betterment  Briefs. 

Link  motion  complete,  except  radius  of  link;   rocker  arms  and  boxes;  shafts 
and  rods;    reverse  levers;    eccentrics  and  eccentric  straps. 
Equalizer  beams ;    hangers,  fulcrums. 
Brake  beams;    brake  shoes. 
Grab  irons;   steps. 
Cylinder  cocks;   relief  valve. 
Lagging. 

Oil  cup  and  lubricator. 

Most  frame  and  cylinder  bolts  and  studs;   split  keys  and  nuts. 
Tank  accessories ;   tank-valve  hose  and  strainer. 

With  a  very  few  exceptions  this  list  of  parts  can  be  standardized 
for  all  classes  of  engines;  besides  these  there  are  many  other  features 
that  can  be  standardized  in  part,  a  few  examples  being: 

Brake  rigging. 

Spring  rigging  and  springs  (leaf  and  coil). 

Flue  lengths. 

Pistons  and  packing  rings,  etc. 

Piston-rod  lengths. 

To  indicate  how  certain  construction  or  design  determined  upon  as 
standard  may  affect  the  shop  tools  and  methods,  and  how  the  cost  of 
repairs  with  these  standard  parts  is  in  turn  affected  by  the  methods 
used,  I  will  cite  a  typical  instance. 

On  one  road  it  was  decided  to  use  extended  piston  rods  on  Vauclain 
compound  engines,  to  counteract  to  some  extent  the  rocking  motion 
of  the  crosshead  due  to  unequal  pressure  in  the  cylinders. 

The  portion  of  the  piston  rods  which  extended  out  of  the  front  head 
of  the  cylinder  passed  through  a  long  bronze  bushing.  It  was  neces- 
Substitution  sary  in  ecluiPPmg  engines  with  these  extended  rods, 
of  Reamer  for  as  they  passed  through  the  shop,  that  the  bushings 
Boring  Tool,  should  be  bored  out  to  an  exact  standard  size.  The 
ordinary  boring-bar  here  illustrated,  as  used  in  a  lathe,  was  not  able 
to  give  sufficiently  accurate  results,  and  moreover  was  very  slow  and 
wasteful  of  time. 

To  overcome  this  difficulty  and  to  get  an  accurate  bore  on  these 
bushings  while  increasing  the  speed  of  the  work,  the  reamer  shown  below 
was  designed.  This  reamer  is  composed  of  an  arbor,  in  which  is  inserted 
a  flat  cutter  of  high-grade  steel.  Behind  the  cutter,  and  %i  inch  larger 
than  the  cutter,  is  a  straight  spiral  reamer  of  high-grade  tool  steel. 

By  means  of  this  cutter  and  reamer  the  work  could  be  revolved 
at  much  higher  speed  and  the  reamer  fed  in  with  a  heavy  feed,  the 
spiral  portion  insuring  an  absolutely  true  bore.  The  saving  in  time  of 
this  production  amounted  to  something  over  twenty  minutes  on  each 
bushing,  not  counting  the  previous  necessity  of  throwing  out  a  large 
percentage  of  the  bushings  that  were  inaccurately  bored.  This  time, 


General  Aspects  of  Standardization. 


89 


FIG.  48 — BALL-JOINT  REAMER  FOR  FACING  STEAM  AND   DRY-PIPE  JOINTS   TO 
STANDARD  RADIUS.     THE  BLADES  ARE  GROUND  TO  STANDARD  SHAPE  AND  INSERTED 

IN  THE  BODY  OF  THE  REAMER,  AND  IT  WILL  BE  NOTED  THAT  THEY  ARE  OPPOSITELY 
PLACED  THOUGH  UNEQUALLY  SPACED  TO  AVOID  CHATTERING  OF  THE  REAMER. 


90 


Betterment  Briefs. 


B/odcs  Spaced  Irregularly  W'tft  Cutting 
Edjea    Diamctricai/y    Opposed 


16  B/odea  of  Too/  Steel 

FIG.  40 — ELEVATION  AND  SECTION  OF  BALL-JOINT  REAMER,  SHOWING  THE 
DETAIL  OF  CONSTRUCTION.  THIS  REAMER  FINISHES  ALL  STEAM  AND  DRY-PIPE 
JOINTS  TO  STANDARD  RADIUS  WITHOUT  CHATTERING,  WHICH  THE  USUAL  REAMER 
WILL  NOT  DO. 


FIG.  50 — GROUP  OF  BALL-JOINT  REAMERS  FOR  STEAM  PIPES  IN  STOCK,  SUBJECT 
TO  ORDER  FROM  OUTSIDE  SHOPS. 


General  Aspects  of  Standardization. 


91 


FIG.  51 — VIEW  OF  TWO  STANDARD  FLUE  ROLLERS  MADE  IN  CENTRAL  TOOL- 
ROOM. THESE  ROLLERS  ARE  KEPT  IN  STOCK  SUBJECT  TO  ORDER  FROM  ALL  SHOPS 
ON  THE  SYSTEM,  AND  INSURE  ALL  FLUES  BEING  ROLLED  TO  STANDARD. 


FIG.  52 — MILLING  CUTTER  WITH  INSERTED  STEEL  BLADES  MADE  IN  A  WELL- 
ORGANIZED  TOOL-ROOM.  THESE  BLADES  ARE  MADE  FROM  FLAT  TOOL  STEEL,  AND 
GROUND  TO  THE  PROPER  SPIRAL. 


Betterment  Briefs. 


FIG.   53 — VIEW  SHOWING  LOT  OF  SMALL  PARTS,  SUCH  AS  WASHOUT  PLUGS, 
CHECK  VALVES,  GAUGE  COCKS,  ETC.,  FINISHED  IN  LARGE  QUANTITIES  AT  CENTRAL 

SHOP   AT   LOW    DUPLICATE    PRODUCTION   COST,    AND    FURNISHED    TO    OUTSIDE   POINTS 
ON  REQUISITION. 


General  Aspects  of  Standardization.  93 

with  a  machinist  at  35  cents  an  hour,  and  a  lathe  on  which  the  hourly 
charges  were  45  cents,  would  amount  to  about  27  cents,  or  a  little  over 
a  dollar  on  four  bushings  for  one  engine.  As  in  this  case  over  one  hun- 
dred engines  were  so  changed,  and  would  require  new  bushings  at 
periods  of  about  six  months,  it  will  be  seen  that  this  small  item  was 
worth  the  trouble  expended  upon  it. 

It  would  be  absurd  and  immensely  unprofitable  to  displace  all 
existing  engines  with  new  standard  ones,  for  the  double  reason  that 
the  old  engines  are  in  a  majority  of  cases  able  to  render  good  and  effi- 
Percentaffe  of  c^en^  service,  and  that  the  new  standardized  engines 
Standard  would  in  the  course  of  five  years  themselves  be 

Equipment.  obsolescent.  Moreover,  such  thorough  standardization 
as  hereinbefore  indicated  will  apply  in  whole  to  but  30  to  50 
per  cent  of  the  engines,  although  these  engines  move  75  to  80 
per  cent  of  the  traffic.  It  can  only  be  hoped  that  standardization  will 
be  approximately  complete.  In  the  course  of  time,  and  as  experience 
and  recent  development  dictate,  these  standard  parts  themselves 
must  undergo  re-design.  But  it  may  be  hoped  that  for  the  greater 
part  the  feature  of  interchangeability  will  be  retained,  and  the  feature 
of  central  manufacture  in  quantities  will  be  one  of  the  governing  con- 
siderations in  design  and  re-design. 

In  new  engines,  therefore,  the  standard  types  and  standard  detail 
parts  will  of  course  be  adhered  to.  In  the  existing  engines  of  more  mod- 
ern types,  where  parts  are  worn  out  or  broken,  they  will  be  replaced 
with  the  standard  article,  this  standard  article  having  been  designed 
with  reference  to  its  applicability  to  the  largest  number  of  these  fairly 
modern  engines.  Where  parts  on  an  engine  receiving  general  over- 
hauling are  not  in  bad  condition  (such  as  a  trailer  wheel  or  a  rocker  arm), 
the  old  part  should  be  retained  on  the  engine  unless  it  is  of  some  notably 
defective  design. 

While  on  the  smaller,  more  miscellaneous,  older  engines  some  few 
of  the  accessories  and  little  detail  parts  can  be  applied,  it  will  be  found 
that  extensive  standardization  of  the  larger  parts,  such  as  rods  and  cyl- 
inders, will  not  pay.  As,  however,  the  expense  of  general  overhauling 
of  these  engines  is  quite  low  compared  with  that  of  the  heavy  modern 
power,  this  is  not  a  serious  disadvantage,  especially  as  the  engines  are 
not  pushed  so  hard  in  service. 

When  it  comes  to  manufacturing  these  standard  parts  in  the  cen^ 
tralized  shops  of  the  railway  system,  the  following  practice  should  be 
adhered  to: 


94  Betterment  Briefs. 

Bolts  and  pins  of  all  kinds  should  be  of  the  fewest  possible  lengths, 
lengths  of  thread,  and  nominal  diameters.  Tapers,  of  course,  should  be 
standard.  These  articles  cannot  be  furnished  in  one  finished  diameter 
only;  but  they  can  be  furnished  in  a  series  of  diameters  varying  by 
Standard  ^2  or  "^4  mcn>  ^  tools  are  at  the  same  time  provided 

Locomotive  for  boring  or  reaming  to  the  nearest  standard  finished 
Parts-  diameter.  Bushings  of  brass  and  steel  should  be  stand- 

ardized in  much  the  same  manner,  and  can  be  carried,  if  standardization 
is  developed  far  enough,  in  completely  finished  sizes,  drilled.  Similarly, 
taper  plugs,  studs,  staybolts,  and  flues  can  be  standardized, ,  the 
former  as  to  lengths,  diameters,  and  threads,  the  latter  as  to  extra 
lengths. 

Cylinder  diameters,  bushings,  piston  heads,  and  piston  packing- 
rings  can  likewise  be  reduced  to  absolutely  finished  standard;  and 
similarly  for  piston  valves,  rings,  and  bushings.  Piston  rods  and  piston- 
rod  fittings  and  nuts  can  also  be  standardized  as  to  lengths  and  diam- 
eters. Wedge  liners  can  be  carried  in  stock  finished  in  varying  thick- 
nesses. In  the  same  way  the  use  of  a  slip  wedge  with  the  standard  shoe 
is  deserving  of  consideration. 

With  a  fully  developed  system  of  ordering  material  at  an  early 
date  in  advance  of  an  engine  being  taken  out  of  road  service  for  general 
repairs,  and  a  systematic  method  of  checking  up  and  keeping  on  hand 
a  sufficient  stock  at  any  division  point,  great  economies  will  result 
from  the  carrying  out,  in  a  very  extensive  manner,  of  this  manufactur- 
ing of  all  articles  in  quantities  and  economically,  thus  doing  little  more 
than  applying  them  to  the  engines  at  the  local  shops. 

STANDARD  PARTS  CENTRALLY  MANUFACTURED. — After  the  stand- 
ardization policy  has  been  determined  upon,  the  next  work  will  be  to  de- 
cide as  to  the  shape  in  which  these  parts  will  be  sent  to  sub-stores ;  that  is, 
whether  as  rough  material  or  parts,  or  as  completely  finished  articles. 
For  instance,  it  probably  would  not  be  proper  to  forge  and  drill  smoke- 
Standard  Parts  arc^  rm&s>  anc^  suPPty  those  for  different  classes  of  en- 
to  be  gines  as  finished  articles,  for  the  reason  that  the  ring 

Finished.  would  not  exactly  fit  the  front  end  of  an  engine  even 

though  it  were  designed  for  that  class,  the  variations  being  sufficient 
to  make  the  ring  too  large  in  some  cases,  and  too  small  in  others; 
moreover,  the  holes  would  not  correspond  closely  to  the  holes  in 
the  front  end.  On  the  other  hand,  such  parts  as  valves  and  cab 
fittings  should  be  supplied  completely  finished.  Then  again,  engine 
bolts  or  knuckle  pins  might  be  partly  finished,  for  example,  being 


General  Aspects  of  Standardization.  95 


BULL.    R/NCS 


Bored  aid  faced  leaving 
Outside  d tometef   '•fluyA 


CROSSHEAD  &  KNUCKLE  PINS,          Centered  heed  ami  threaded. 


CRANK    PINS. 


Finished  except  fit 


CRANK  PIN  COLLARS  Finished  complete. 


CYLINDERS 


CYLINDER  HEADS. 


DRIVING   BOXES. 


ENGINE  BOLTS. 


ECCENTRIC  STRAPS. 


finished  except  saddle 


Finished  complete. 


finished  except  boring  and  facinq  hub 


Centered,  turned  for  thnact.and  fAntaded 


When  ordered  with  eccentrics,  fin/shed  complete. 
When  ordered  sepcrately;  bare  to  be  left  rough. 
blade  fit  to  be  plantd 


DRA IV  BAR  CARRY  IRONS.          Finished  complete. 


PISTON   HEADS 


PISTON  RODS. 


Outside  diameter*' large  Borert' aimll. 


Finished  except  p/ston  and  crosshead  fits 


PISTON  VALVE  BUSHINCS.  Turned*  'large  outside  diameter' 


SHOES  A  WEDGES. 


MOTION  PINS. 


finished  except  box  fact. 


Centered,  foced.rouqh  turned,  and  threaded 


FIG.  54 — PARTIAL  LIST  OF  LOCOMOTIVE  PARTS,  WITH  SKETCHES,  FINISHED  IN 
CENTRAL  SHOP  IN  LARGE  QUANTITIES  AT  VERY  LOW  COST.  THESE  PARTS  ARE 
KEPT  IN  STOCK  AND  ARE  SHIPPED  TO  OUTSIDE  SHOPS  ON  REQUISITION,  THUS  KEEP- 
ING DOWN  REPAIR  COSTS  AND  INSURING  MORE  RAPID  MOVEMENT  OF  LOCOMOTIVES 
THROUGH  ROUNDHOUSES  ON  ACCOUNT  OF  HAVING  THE  FINISHED  MATERIAL  ON 
HAND  READY  TO  APPLY. 


Betterm  ent  Briefs . 


FIG.  55 — TOOLS  PRODUCED  IN  A  WELL-ORGANIZED  RAILWAY  SHOP  TOOL-ROOM. 
THESE  TOOLS  WERE  ALL  MADE  FROM  THE  BEST  DESIGNS  AND  MORE  ECONOMICALLY 
THAN  THEY  COULD  HAVE  BEEN  PURCHASED.  THE  SIX-INCH  SCALE  SHOWN  IN  RIGHT 
CENTER  INDICATES  THE  SIZE  OF  THE  CUTTERS. 


General  Aspects  of  Standardization. 


97 


FIG.  56 — OLD  METHOD  OF  MILLING  PORTS  OF  PISTON -VALVE  BUSHINGS. 

BUSHING  WAS  SET  BY  HAND  AND  ONE  PORT  BEING  MILLED  AT  A  TIME. 


THE 


98 


Betterment  Briefs. 


FIG.  57 — IMPROVED  METHOD  OF  MILLING  PORTS  OF  PISTON-VALVE  BUSHINGS. 
THE  MACHINE  IS  EQUIPPED  WITH  FOUR  MILLING  CUTTERS  AND  THE  BUSHING  IS 

MOUNTED  ON  A  MANDREL  THAT  CAN  BE  ROTATED   BY  A  HANDLE. 


FIG.   58 — INSIDE  GEARING  OF  FOUR-SPINDLE  MILLING  DEVICE  FOR  MILLING 
PORTS  OF  PISTON-VALVE  BUSHINGS. 


General  Aspects  of  Standardization.  99 

centered,  cut  off,  and  faced  to  length  and  threaded,  the  outside  diameter 
being  left  rough  to  be  turned  to  fit  for  each  individual  engine.1 

List  number  two,  following,  gives  such  parts  as  it  would  be  desirable 
to  finish  in  whole  or  in  part  at  the  central  shops,  so  that  a  minimum 
amount  of  work  might  be  required  to  be  done  on  these  articles  at  the 
local  points. 

STANDARD  PARTS  FINISHED,  LIST  No.  2. 

Piston  heads,  bull  rings,  and  spiders,  finished  complete  except  leaving  rod 
fit  a  little  small  and  the  outside  diameter  to  be  about  £  inch  large. 

Crosshead  and  knuckle-pins  centered,  faced,  and  threaded. 

Driving  boxes  and  collars,  finished  and  fitted  except  boring  the  brass  and 
facing  hub. 

Shoes  and  wedges,  finished  except  box  face. 

Cylinder  castings,  drilled  and  finished  complete,  except  at  saddle. 

Engine  bolts,  centered,  threaded,  and  slotted  for  split  keys  where  necessary; 

Or,  turned  in  varying  taper  diameters  also,  to  be  fitted  by  blocks  in  the  local 
shops  and  roundhouses. 

Piston  rods,  finished,  except  piston  and  crosshead  fits,  which  are  left  liberally 
large. 

Piston- valve  bushings,  finished  to  length,  bored  and  turned,  except  that 
bushing  or  cage  is  turned  a  little  large ;  and  live-port  openings  finished. 

Crank  pins,  finished  complete  except  wheel-center  fit. 

Eccentric  straps  only,  finished  except  bore  babbitt. 

In  addition  to  the  above  list,  which  shows  standard  articles  finished 
in  part,  the  following  articles  should  be  finished  complete : 

Blower  elbows. 
Cylinder  heads. 
Crossheads. 
Crank  pin  collars. 
Chafing  irons. 
Drawbar  carrying  iron. 
Double  cones  (dry  pipe  T  heads). 
Engine  truck  box. 

Eccentric  and  straps  when  ordered  together. 
Exhaust  nozzle. 

Grease  cups  and  grease-cup  plugs. 
Pipe  glands. 

Pilots  and  pilot  bands.  • 
Packing  rings. 

Pedestal  binder;  solid  pedestal  binders  finished  except  slotting  for  jaw  fit 
and  drilling. 

Piston  valves  and  valve-chamber  heads. 

Rocker  box  and  tumbling-shaft  box. 

Side  rods  and  main  rods. 

Slide  valves,  steam  chests,  and  steam-chest  covers. 

Steam  pipes  and  stand  pipes. 

Stack  saddles. 

Safety-chain  hook  and  swing-chain  hook. 

Transmission  bars,  except  drilling  for  bushing. 

1  See  table  showing  economy  effected  by  concentration  of  manufacture  of  certain  locomo- 
tive parts  at  central  shops,  p.  176. 


100  Betterment  Briefs. 

STANDARD  TOOLS  CENTRALLY  MANUFACTURED. 

Wrenches;    grease  cup,  car  repairer's. 

Machine  punches. 

Flue  rollers. 

Flue-beading  tools. 

All  chisels  and  drift  pins. 

Sectional  flue  expanders. 

High-speed  turning  and  planing  tools. 

High-speed  flat  drills. 

Frame  reamers. 

Staybolt  taps. 

Special  devices. 

All  large  reamers. 

Milling  cutters. 

Besides  these  parts,  all  injector,  lubricator,  air-pumps,  whistle,  cylinder- 
cock,  pop-valve,  valve-gland,  check-valve  and  piston  rod  packing  parts,  should 
be  furnished  completely  finished.  To  this  list  should  also  be  added  blow-off- 
cocks  and  fittings,  starting  valves,  branch-pipe  unions,  water-glass  parts,  truck 
and  trailer  brasses,  oil  cups  and  rod-cup  bushings,  elbow,  relief  valves,  air  and 
feed-hose  parts  and  couplings,  hose  strainer  water  and  lubricator-glass  guards, 
plugs  of  all  kinds,  and  all  similar  classes  of  material. 

Many  of  these  small  parts  can  be  standardized  for  all  engines; 
others,  again,  which  would  vary  in  design  from  one  class  of  engine  to 
another,  should  be  furnished  to  such  engines  only  as  it  had  been  de- 
cided to  standardize,  and  such  other  unstandardized  engines  as  standard 
parts  could  be  made  to  fit. 

It  will  be  found,  when  this  system  of  supplying  centrally  manufac- 
tured articles  to  local  stores  is  promulgated,  that  there  will  be  great 
difficulties  in  obtaining  a  satisfactory  working  of  the  system,  for  the 
Material  reason  that  the  foremen  and  others  managing  shops  and 

Supply  of  roundhouses  will  not  have  any  comprehensive  idea  as 
Local  Stores.  to  ^ne  j,jn(j  an(j  amoimt  of  stock  supplies  they  require, 
and  even  where  they  do  have  such  an  idea,  will  not  have  the  oppor- 
tunity (or  take  it)  to  submit  lists  to  the  authorities  through  whom  the 
stock  must  be  ordered. 

The  various  storekeepers  will  of  course  do  their  best  to  keep  on 
hand  sufficient  reserves  of  stock  to  supply  estimated  shop  needs,  but 
in  this  effort  on  the  part  of  the  storekeepers  very  little  assistance  is 
usually  rendered  by  the  shop  managements.  As  a  consequence,  the 
storekeeper  will  often  order  some  articles  in  quantities  out  of  all  pro- 
portion to  consumption,  and  other  parts,  frequently  needed,  will  be 
but  meagerly  supplied.  The  result  is,  that  in  some  respects  the  local 
stock  platforms  are  piled  high  with  material  which  is  delayed  an  un- 
profitable length  of  time  in  getting  into  active  and  useful  service ;  and 
on  the  other  hand,  many  delays  result  to  engine  repairs  owing  to  the 
shortage  of  essential  parts,  such  shortage  not  even  being  discovered 


General  Aspects  of  Standardization. 


101 


102 


Betterment  Briefs. 


FIG.  60 — HYDRAULIC  MACHINE  FOR  PRESSING  IN  AND  REMOVING  PISTON-VALVE 
BUSHINGS  FROM  CYLINDER  CASTING.     DEVISED   BY  AN   ERECTING-SHOP  FOREMAN. 


General  Aspects  of  Standardization. 


103 


Total  Pay  Roll,  1905 $650,984.31 

"         "       "      1906 539,390.62 

Total  reduction  1906 $111,593.69 

Per  cent,  reduction 17% 

Total  for  year  1906  includes  $32,696.23  bonus  paid  to  workmen  and 
entire  local  cost  for  installing  system,  and  an  average  increase  in  wages 
of  10%  due  to  bonus. 

Total  output  in  tons,  1906 30,188 

"  "  "       1905 26,924 

Increase,  1906  over  1905 3,264 

Per  cent  increase 35% 

Total  cost  per  ton  (labor  and  material),  1905 $          14.89 

"         "  "  "  1906 $  9.59 

Decrease,  1906  under  1905 $  5 . 30 

Per  cent  decrease 35% 

Total  output  of  cars,  1906 18,908 

"  "  "        1905 18,610 

Increase,  1906  over  1905 298 

Average  cost  per  car,  1905 $          15 . 23 

"  "          "       1906 $          12.57 

Decrease  in  cost  per  car,  1906 $  2 . 66 

Per  cent  decrease 17% 


Total 

No. 

Days. 


Total 

No. 
Engines. 


1905—8,641 
1906—7,628 


332 
361 


Average  No. 
Days  in  Shop 
Per  Engine. 

26 
21 


Number 
Days 

Saved. 


5  1,805 

Grant  an  engine  day  saved  at  $25.00.     At  this  rate  the  company  has 
saved  time  amounting  to  $45,125.00  during  the  year  1906. 


STATEMENT  SHOWING  IMPROVEMENT  ONE  YEAR  OVER  ANOTHER  AT  ONE  SHOP  ON 
ACCOUNT  OF  BETTERMENT  WORK.  THE  HEARTY  COOPERATION  AND  ENTHUSIASM  OP 
THE  FOREMEN  IN  REGARD  TO  THE  BETTERMENT  WORK  WAS  THE  PRINCIPAL  FACTOR  IN 
THE  EXCELLENT  SHOWING  MADE.  REDUCED  PAY-ROLL,  INCREASED  WAGES  TO  MEN, 
GREATER  OUTPUT  AND  LESSENED  DELAY  TO  ENGINES  FROM  EARNING  SERVICE,  AT 
LOWER  COST. 


General  Aspects  of  Standardization.  105 

until  nearly  the  time  when  it  is  proposed  to  renew  and  apply  the  part 
to  the  engine. 

The  three  departments — stores,  mechanical,  and  operating — should 
in  fact  "get  together"  in  some  practical  way  for  the  discussion  of  mu- 
C  eration  ^ua^  assistance.  The  operating  department,  seeing  ahead 
of  Depart-  the  traffic  requirements,  should  forecast  as  nearly  as 
ments.  possib  e  changes  in  the  engine  assignment,  both  as  re- 

gards the  number  of  engines  assigned  to  different  divisions  and  runs, 
and  also  as  regards  the  type  of  engines  so  assigned.  The  mechanical 
department,  presumably  well  posted  at  all  times  on  the  conditions 
of  all  engines,  should  indicate,  several  months  in  advance,  the  ap- 
proximate shopping  dates  of  the  engines.  Knowing  these  two  factors, 
it  should  be  very  easy  to  decide  what  shop  would  undertake  the  repair 
of  each  engine,  and  to  see  immediately  that  there  is  provision  of 
the  principal  material  which  will  be  required  on  these  engines,  such  as 
tires  (if  the  limit  of  tire  wear  is  exceeded),  shoes  and  wedges,  prob- 
ably, bushings,  packing-rings,  and  perhaps  piston  rods. 

The  store,  thus  advised  in  advance,  should  be  able  through  its  or- 
ganization to  have  the  requisite  material  on  hand  before  the  engine  is 
finally  withdrawn  from  active  service  and  repairs  commenced.  In 
fact,  it  should  be  possible  in  regard  to  some  new  parts,  to  have  already 
completed  the  most  of  the  machine  work  even  before  the  engine  is 
stripped,  making  the  task  of  erecting  these  parts  onto  the  engine  a 
relatively  speedy  one,  thus  delaying  the  engine  from  earning  service  the 
least  possible  time. 

It  will  be  found  that  where  this  centralized  manufacture  is  under- 
taken, if  the  railway  system  is  not  a  very  extensive  one,  the  central 
shops  will  take  care  of  the  heaviest  repairs,  such  as  boiler  and  fire-box 
renewals,  and  shopping  of  engines  requiring  a  general  overhauling  of 
two  thousand  dollars  and  up:  this  is  on  account  of  the  presumably 
much  more  complete  equipment  of  the  central  shops  in  regard  to  ma- 
chine tools  and  methods  of  handling  material  and  work,  such  as  cranes 
and  power  rolls  for  boiler  sheets.  On  a  railway  system  that  extends 
over  a  great  territory  between  terminals,  more  than  one  such  shop  will 
be  required  for  the  heavy  and  expensive  repairs,  though  in  no  case 
should  there  be  more  than  one  shop  doing  general  manufacturing. 
Distribution  ^n  e^her  case  the  method  of  approximately  determin- 
of  Locomp-  j  ing  in  advance  what  engines  will  require  shoppings  will 
re  epairs.  enabie  the  management  to  take  care  of  the  heavy  re- 
pairs at  the  larger  shops,  and  to  apportion  the  light  repairs  at 


106  Betterment  Briefs. 

the  smaller  shops  in  some  relation  to  the  capacity  of  these  various 
shops  to  turn  out  the  work  economically  and  expeditiously.  It 
does  not  pay  to  swamp  with  eight  or  ten  engines,  a  shop  built 
for 'an  output  capacity  of  six  engines  a  month,  as  all  engines  will 
be  delayed  so  much  longer  from  getting  into  active  service.  On  the 
other  hand,  there  is  a  limit  below  which  it  is  not  economy  to  make  haste 
in  turning  out  engines.1  These  various  relationships — that  of  the  motive 
power  to  the  traffic  requirements,  of  the  shops  to  their  capability  of 
handling  repairs  to  motive  power,  and  of  the  material  and  stores  de- 
partment to  furnishing  prompt  delivery  of  material  as  nearly  completely 
ready  for  application  as  is  practicable — all  these  considerations  must 
be  intelligently  gone  over,  and  decisive  action  taken,  in  order  to  obtain 
the  full  benefits  of  the  reneral  methods  here  outlined. 

That  such  careful  and  thorough  consideration  is  well  worth  while, 
is  shown  by  the  fact  that  repairs  and  renewals  to  locomotives  will  aver- 
age, on  a  railway  using  a  large  power,  more  than  $2,000  per  engine  per 
Cost  of  year — anywhere  from  forty  to  several  hundred  per 

Locomotive  cent  higher  than  it  needs  be  with  careful  and  intelli- 
gent management.  Not  only  is  this  large  saving 
amounting  from  hundreds  of  thousands  of  dollars  to  even  a  million 
or  so  per  year,  quite  within  reach,  but  an  almost  greater  financial 
gain  is  obtainable  by  decreasing  the  time  engines  are  kept  out 
of  service  for  repairs,  thus  increasing  their  earning  power  hundreds 
of  thousands  of  dollars  per  year,  and  also  postponing  the  necessity  for 
tying  up  capital  at  too  early  a  date  in  additional  power  equipment. 

The  average  railroad  takes  from  three  weeks  to  two  months  to  effect 
a  general  overhauling  and  repairing  of  a  locomotive ;  Baldwin  Locomo- 
tive Works  can  build  complete  new  engines  in  an  incredibly  short  time 

EC  n  m  in  — a  ver^  ^ew  ^ays>  even  w^mn  twenty-four  hours,  it  has 
Rapid  been  reported.  There  is  little  reason  why  some  of  the 

methods  making  such  rapid  production  possible  should 
not  be  in  some  way  adaptable  to  railroad  practice,  with 
the  result  that  a  general  overhauling  would  not  require  over  a 
week  or  ten  days  at  the  outside.  Of  course,  if  shops  were  worked 
night  and  day  on  three  shifts,  this  time  of  detention  from  service  could 
be  still  further  reduced,  and  the  additional  advantage  would  be  gained 
that  the  shop  capacity  would  be  greatly  increased  without  increased 
capital  expenditure  on  buildings  and  equipment.  There  are  certain 

^See  article,  "Locomotive  Repair  Schedules,"  by  C.  J.  Morrison,  in  American  Engineer 
and  Railroad  Journal,  September,  1906. 


Centralization  of  Machine  Tool  Equipment.         107 

disadvantages  in  working  the  men  in  shifts  in  this  manner,  but  the 
financial  benefits  are  so  great  as  to  make  the  plan  well  worth  con- 
sidering in  respect  to  the  larger  shops,  especially  where  extensions 
of  plant  are  proposed. 

III.    CENTRALIZATION  AND  BALANCE  OF  MACHINE  TOOL  EQUIPMENT 
ON  AN  ENTIRE  RAILROAD. 

A  railroad  of  the  size  with  which  we  are  dealing  in  these  articles 
will  have  a  number  of  lesser  shops  besides  one  or  more  large  main  shops. 
These  lesser  shops  will  be  under  different  master  mechanics,  and  each 
one  will  be  provided  with  a  machine  tool  equipment,  usually  collected 
and  added  to  during  a  long  period  of  years.  Many  of  these  machines 
will  be  old,  some  will  be  new,  and  it  will  come  about  that  fine  and  ex- 
pensive machines,  rarely  used,  will  by  chance  rather  than  by  intelligent 
foresight  be  found  in  small  shops. 

Each  master  mechanic,  in  order  to  lessen  the  burden  of  "grief" 
upon  him  in  the  way  of  power  tied  up  for  repairs,  naturally  desires  to 
fortify  himself  as  far  as  possible  with  a  large  and  safe  number  of  men 

Variation  in  anc^  a  ^u^  anc^  comP^ete  shop-tool  equipment.  As 
Policy  of  master  mechanic  succeeds  master  mechanic,  different 

items  will  receive  attention,  and  the  shop  will  be 
strengthened  now  here,  now  there.  One  man  will  de- 
vote his  attention  to  the  roundhouse  and  clamor  for  efficient  drop  pits, 
overhead  cranes,  lighting  and  heating  systems.  His  successor  will 
yearly  add  many  thousands  of  dollars  to  the  machine-tool  budget — 
large  radial  drill  suitable  for  use  with  mud  rings,  a  quartering  machine, 
some  patent  planer  or  grinding  machine,  electric  drives,  or  what  not. 
Still  a  third  will  insist  on  all  manner  of  small  tools,  abrasive  wheels, 
air  motors,  valve-setting  machines,  jigs  and  devices  without  number; 
usually  he  has  these  made  right  in  the  shop,  and  the  expense  does  not 
appear  on  the  budget  nor  in  the  requisitions,  but  totals  up  in  the  pay- 
roll. 

The  result  of  this  general  attitude  and  policy  on  the  part  of  the  mas- 
ter mechanic  of  a  division,  wherein  he  is  ably  seconded  and  supple- 
mented by  all  the  foremen  under  him,  is  that  the  lesser  shops  are  usually 
over-equipped  and  over-manned  for  the  amount  of  work  they  are  sup- 
posed to  turn  out.  The  higher  officials,  in  charge  of  the  purse-strings 
and  the  budget,  exercise  quite  a  restraining  influence,  and  keep  this 
over-equipment  from  reaching  extravagant  proportions.  A  master 
mechanic  has  too  much  dependent  upon  him,  in  the  way  of  keeping 


108  Betterment  Briefs. 

engines  in  running  condition  and  supervision  of  roundhouses  over  his 
division,  to  give  close  study  to  the  question  of  whether  the  installation 
of  certain  machinery  is  economical,  and  he  is  often  influenced  by  the 
urgency  of  his  foremen  in  such  matters;  at  the  same  time  the  higher 
officials  must  in  large  measure  rely  upon  the  master  mechanic's  rec- 
ommendations, as  he  is  the  man  employed  to  look  after  such  interest, 
and  they  usually  have  no  other  means  of  determining  the  requirements. 
When,  therefore,  it  has  been  decided  by  the  management  of  a 
railroad  to  organize  thoroughly  and  to  systematize  clear-sightedly  their 
mechanical  department,  one  of  the  earliest  moves,  after  the  general 
EC  n  mical  Poucv  °f  centralization  of  manufacture  and  standardi- 
Utilization  of  zation  of  parts  has  been  worked  up,  is  to  take  stock 
E°ui  ment  °^  ^ne  en^re  sn°P  and  tool  equipment  of  the  road,  and 
to  decide  upon  certain  broad  policies  in  regard  to  the 
economical  utilization  of  this  equipment.  Under  the  general  plan 
of  centralized  manufacture  herein  outlined,  it  is  very  probable 
that  the  main  shops  will  have  to  be  enlarged  and  that  their  tool  equip- 
ment will  have  to  be  increased.  Instead,  however,  of  purchasing  large 
amounts  of  new  machine  tools,  it  will  be  found  of  great  advantage  to 
transfer  to  the  main  shops  needed  tools  spared  from  the  outlying  shops. 
Of  course  this  policy  will  be  bitterly  opposed,  but  it  needs  no  argument 
to  show  that  a  $10,000  wheel  lathe  is  better  off  in  a  place  where  it  can 
turn  out  seven  to  ten  pairs  of  drivers  a  day,  than  where  the  total  shop 
output  would  permit  of  turning  but  one  or  two  pairs  ;  and  it  also  needs 
no  argument  to  show  that  it  would  be  folly  to  purchase  an  additional 
new  machine  for  the  large  shops  when  one  of  which  so  little  use  was 
being  made,  was  available.  I  cite  this  case  because  it  happens  to  be 
an  actual  one.  The  same  rule  should  govern  in  the  case  of  engine 
lathes,  boring  mills,  slotters,  and  especially,  large  milling  machines  and 
special  grinding  machines. 

_  .  One   of   the   great    factors   of   shop  production  im- 

Increased  !  ...  •     «i  ,    i      ,, 

Production        provement  is  the  modern  high-speed  alloy  steel,  by  the 


.  use  of  which    many  machining  operations  can  be  greatly 

Speed  Steel.  .       . 

reduced  in  time.1 

This  first  view  is  of  the  noses  of  two  large  planer  tools,  the  one  on 
the  left  of  carbon  tool  steel,  and  the  one  on  the  right  of  high-speed  alloy 
steel.  Besides  each  tool  is  the  chip  that  it  removed  from  a  main  rod 
in  five  seconds.  The  cutting  edge  of  the  carbon  tool  was  burnt  as 
shown  after  three  minutes'  service;  the  other  tool  kept  the  edge  here 

1  See  report  of  tests  with  high-speed  steel,  pp.  53-57. 


Centralization  of  Machine   Tool  Equipment.         109 


FIG.  61 — RESULTS  OF  TEST  OF  CARBON  vs.  ALLOY  STEEL  TOOLS,  SHOWING 

COMPARATIVE  METAL  REDUCTION  AND  CONDITION  OF  TOOL  NOSES  WHICH  ARE 
CUT  OFF  FOR  THE  PURPOSE  OF  EXHIBITION.  SlX-INCH  RULES  ARE  SHOWN  IN 
EACH  ILLUSTRATION.  THE  HIGH-SPEED  TOOLS  AND  CHIPS  ARE  IN  THE  MIDDLE  AND 
THE  CARBON  TOOL  AND  CHIPS  ON  THE  OUTSIDE.  THE  CHIPS  ARE  IN  IN  EACH  CASE 
THE  RESULT  OF  FIVE  SECONDS*  CUTTING. 


110 


Betterment  Briefs. 


The  Eng.  Mag*si*l 

FIG.  62 — COMPARATIVE  EFFICIENCY  OF  FLAT  AND  TWIST  DRILLS  MADE  OF  CAR- 
BON AND  HIGH-SPEED  STEEL. 


Centralization  of  Machine  Tool  Equipment.         Ill 


FIG.  63 — SIZE  OF  SOLID  HIGH-SPEED    WHEEL-LATHE  TOOLS  COMPARED  WITH 
THOSE  USED  IN  TOOL-HOLDERS. 


FIG.  64 — "PHANTOM"  VIEW  OF  WHEEL- LATHE  TOOL-HOLDER,  SHOWING  CUT- 
TING TOOLS  IN  PLACE. 


Betterment  Briefs. 


FIG.  65 — VIEW  SHOWING  THE  RELATIVE  AMOUNTS  OF  STEEL  REQUIRED  FOR 
WHEEL-LATHE  TOOL  EQUIPMENT  UNDER  OLD  AND  NEW  CONDITIONS. 


FIG.  66 PILE  OF  SELF-HARDENING  AND  CARBON-STEEL    TOOLS,  WITHDRAWN 

FROM   USE  WHEN  STANDARD  HIGH-SPEED  TOOLS  ARE  GENERALLY   INTRODUCED. 


Centralization  of  Machine  Tool  Equipment.         113 


FIG.   67 — A  STACK  OF  WHEEL-LATHE  TOOL-HOLDERS  READY    FOR    SHIPMENT 

TO  OUTLYING  SHOPS. 


114 


Betterment  Briefs. 


FIG.  68 — AN  EFFICIENT  CENTERING  MACHINE  DESIGNED  AND  BUILT  IN  THE 
SHOPS.  IT  COSTS  LESS  AND  IS  QUICKER  IN  ACTION  AND  MORE  ACCURATE  THAN  ANY 
MACHINE  TO  BE  FOUND  IN  THE  OPEN  MARKET. 


Centralization  of  Machine  Tool  Equipment.        115 

photographed  for  an  hour  and  a  half,  removing  780  pounds  of  metal 
per  hour,  and  was  still  not  in  need  of  grinding. 

When  the  high-speed  alloy  steel  was  first  put  on  the  market  its 
fiery-furnace  ordeal  was  to  stand  up  under  the  severest  conditions  that 
turning  tires  on  the  wheel  lathe  would  subject  it  to.  While  experiment- 
ing with  these  steels  on  the  wheel  lathe  on  Krupp  tires,  it  was  found 
that  the  usual  wheel-lathe  tools  were  inefficient  in  design  and  needlessly 
heavy  in  the  amount  of  tool  steel  used.  To  economize  in  the  tool  steel, 
and  to  standardize  the  flanging  tools,  a  cast-steel  holder,  using  only 
Improved  1-inch  square  by  3  inches,  and  a  flat  flanging  cutter 
Wheel  Lathe  f-inch  by  2  inches,  instead  of  a  H-inch  square  bar,  was 
Holder^  designed.  The  old  flanging  cutters  were  forged  and 
shaped  and  then  ground  by  the  machinist  according 
to  his  ideas  as  to  what  the  shape  of  the  flange  should  be.  The  new  flat 
cutters,  weight  not  one-tenth  as  much,  were  milled  out  to  standard 
M.  C.  B.  shape  in  the  tool-room,  in  quantity,  and  then  hardened.  They 
retained  their  edges  under  test  about  twenty  times  as  long  as  the  old 
tools,  and  when  in  need  of  new  grinding  were  reground  in  the  tool- 
room to  standard.  The  illustration  shows  the  flat  cutter  flanked 
on  each  side  by  the  two  large  flange  cutters  necessary  under  the  old 
conditions,  and  shows  also  the  old  roughing  tools,  the  new  small  rough- 
ing tool,  and  the  cast-steel  tool-holder.  The  high-speed  steel  used  in 
these  two  tools  weighs  only  3  pounds,  as  compared  with  27  pounds  for 
the  old  set.  The  saving  of  24  pounds  at  50  cents  per  pound,  where 
Possible  these  sets  of  tools  are  kept  in  duplicate  or  triplicate,  for 

Savings  in  each  shop  having  a  wheel  lathe  on  a  railroad  system, 
Tool  Steel.  w^  amount  to  a  considerable  sum  of  money — secured 
by  the  use  of  a  cast-steel  tool-holder,  costing  less  than  $1.* 

The  tool  accounts  on  our  larger  railroads  run  from  $100,000  to 
over  $1,000,000  per  year.  When  necessary  expenditures  for  new 
machine-tool  equipment  are  cut  out,  when  needless  manufacturing  of 
small  and  special  tools  is  stopped,  and  the  tool-room  force  at  the  small 
Cost  of  shops  so  reduced  that  it  is  not  possible  to  spend  time 

Machinery  and  wages  on  such  manufacturing  in  addition  to  keeping 
Maintenance.  up  ^e  ordinary  repairs  and  care  of  tools,  and  the  pay-roll 
of  the  tool  account  is  checked  up  for  each  point  each  day,  and  sum- 
marized each  month,  it  will  be  astonishing  what  reduction  in  this 
tool  expense  can  be  accomplished,  without  any  detriment  to  the 
service,  but  on  the  other  hand,  with  increased  efficiency  resulting 

'See  p.  24  for  detailed  drawing  of  wheel-lathe  tool-holder. 


116  Betterment  Briefs. 

from  intelligent  supervision  and  supply  of  what  is  needed  most  in 
order  to  get  the  work  out.  It  may  be  confidently  stated  that  if 
this  tool  proposition  is  handled  thoroughly,  radically,  and  uncom- 
promisingly, the  account  may  assuredly  be  cut  in  two. 

We  deal  here  in  economies  in  tool  equipment;  by  means  of  tools 
alone  can  we  maintain  our  power.  The  tool  account  will  not  be  5  per 
cent  of  the  whole  cost  of  maintaining  and  renewing  locomotives,  yet 
Possible  where  a  50  per  cent  tool  account  economy  can  be  made, 

Reduction  in  a  20  per  cent  engine-repair  economy  is  also  possible, 
Tool  Account.  w^  jitter  engines,  turned  out  more  quickly.  It  is 
with  these  larger  and  more  telling  economies  that  we  have  chiefly  to 
deal. 

CONSIDERATIONS  GOVERNING  THE  SELECTION  AND  DESIGN  OF 
MACHINE-TOOL  EQUIPMENT. — Whenever  a  large  shop  is  built,  or  even 
a  small  shop  extended,  everyone,  from  the  machinist  to  the  highest 
officials  on  the  road,  considers  it  desirable  and  advantageous  to  pur- 
chase and  put  into  use  the  best  modern  machine  tools  that  can  be  had. 
In  fact,  there  is  a  constant  tendency  toward  the  acquisition  of  these  new 
machines.  We  have  already  shown  how  ill-chosen  in  respect  to  the 
needs  of  a  shop  these  purchases  often  are ;  here  stress  is  to  be  laid  on 
the  fact  that  most  of  this  new  machinery  is  neither  necessary  nor  de- 
sirable. 

With  the  prosperous  conditions  existing  all  over  the  United  States 
in  the  past  five  years,  extravagance  and  wholesale  expenditures  have 
seemingly  become  rampant,  not  only  in  government  and  municipal 
undertakings,  but  also,  concurrently  with  the  rapid  rise  of  consolidated 
Tendency  industries,  in  the  new  and  improved  equipment  nec- 

Toward  Ex-  essary  to  carry  these  on  in  an  economically  central- 
Pur^hasTof111  ^ze<^  wav-  In  general  this  policy  of  expansion  in  manu- 
Tools.  facture  and  centralization,  and  of  acquiring  equipment 

enabling  such  concentration,  is  according  to  economic  laws;  but 
in  detail,  much  of  this  hue-and-cry  about  new  machines  and  modern 
methods  is  a  fad.  For  instance,  we  have  many  advocates  of  individ- 
ual electric  drives  for  machine  tools.  Electric  cranes,  electric  telfers, 
and  other  electrical  devices  are  considered  very  desirable,  and  great 
savings  in  labor  are  claimed  on  their  account.  Similarly,  big,  heavy 
new  machines  are  thought  essential  for  several  reasons.  Much  that  is 
being  done  in  this  direction  is  not  economical — quite  the  contrary— 
and  better  results  would  be  secured  if  closer  attention  were  given  toward 


Centralization  of  Machine  Tool  Equipment.         117 


!  i' 


M£ 
a  -a 

.H  '* 


M  X     X     X    -^ 


666 


V 


22g 

£    J,  JJ.  j 


0 

H  •« 


II 

<85 


V 


M  M  M  M       £ 


118 


Bettcrmen t  B riefs . 


FIG.  70 — OLD  AND  NEW  PATTERNS  OF  CYLINDER  BUSHINGS.  THE  FORMER 
WAS  DESIGNED  WITH  CROSS-IRONS  FOR  TURNING  UP  IN  A  LATHE  BEFORE  BORING. 
THE  LATTER  CAN  BE  BORED  FIRST  AND  TURNED  UP  ON  A  MANDREL  IN  A  LATHE 
LATER.  NOTE  THE  SAVING  IN  STOCK  AND  MACHINING  BY  THE  INTELLIGENT  DE- 
SIGN OF  PATTERNS. 


Centralization  of  Machine   Tool  Equipment.         119 

the  adaptation  and  rebuilding  of  old  machines  with  reference  to  the 
particular  work  in  view.  First,  the  new  machines  are  built  with  such 
regard  for  massive  strength  that  their  cost  is  much 
New  Machin-  higher  owing  to  the  weight  of  the  material  alone,  and 
ery  Not  Always  they  are  too  heavy  and  cumbersome  to  yield  rapid 
production.  Second,  notwithstanding  that  these  ma- 
chines are  built  with  great  strength,  and,  apparently,  for  very  heavy 
service,  they  are  still  supplied  with  cast-iron  gears,  for  the  most  part 
incapable  of  transmitting  large  loads  for  any  length  of  time.  Third, 
many  of  them  are  supplied  with  electric  motors  on  the  theory  that  a 
greater  and  more  gradual  variation  in  speed  and  power  and  applica- 
tion will  be  effected,  irrespective  of  the  cost  or  actual  advantage  in 
this  method  of  drive.  Fourth,  the  economical  aspect  of  the  machine- 
tool  proposition  does  not  seem  to  have  been  considered 
1  *n  a  sufficiently  comprehensive  way,  and  the  "surcharge" 
or  overcharge  on  the  machine  is  largely  neglected  in 
estimating  its  time  and  output  capabilities. 

Under  "surcharge"  are  included  the  following  items: 
Interest  on  the  first  cost  of  the  machine. 
Depreciation  of  the  machine. 
Annual  repairs  on  the  machine,  including  repairs  to  the  electric 

motor. 

Cost  of  horse-power  delivered  at  the  spindle. 
The   machine's   percentage   chargeable   to   the   individual    ma- 
chine, or 

Cost,  interest,  insurance,  depreciation,  et  cetera,  annual  rent 
of  the  building  and  its  appliances  in  which  the  machine  is 
situated. 

Similar  percentages  on  the  power-house  equipment. 
Percentages  also  of  the  supervision,  clerical,  and  other  office 

costs  in  connection  with  the  machine. 

All  these  items,  as  a  rule,  bear  some  direct  ratio  to  the  size  and  first 
cost  of  the  machine  tool,  and  as  a  consequence  the  overcharges  are 
very  high  on  some  of  our  fine,  modern  heavy  equipment — so  high,  in 
fact,  that  it  is  more  economical  to  turn  a  pair  of  drivers  in  three  or 
four  hours  on  an  old  wheel  lathe,  even  where  the  machine  is  used  most 
of  the  time,  than  to  reduce  the  time  to  an  hour  or  two  hours  by  the  use 
of  a  magnificent  $10,000  machine. 

These  overcharges  are  no  imaginary  items,  appearing  only  on  paper, 
but  considered  in  an  ultimate  way  they  are  actual  costs,  for  the  "gen- 


120  Betterment  Briefs. 

eral  expense"  of  which  they  represent  a  subdivision  is  a  large  item  in 
any  enterprise.1 

In  many  cases,  therefore,  better  results  and  greater  economies  can 
be  secured  by  close  attention  to  the  rebuilding  of  old  machines.  In 
general  it  may  be  said  that  steel  gears  should  be  substituted  for  cast 
iron,  wide  cone  pulleys  used  (with  perhaps  fewer  steps),  and  many 
devices  and  appliances  should  be  furnished  in  order  to  ex- 
fo?fm8proving  pedite  and  add  to  the  convenience  of  the  work.  Along 
Machine  and  with  this  re-design  of  the  machine,  of  which  we  shall  con- 
sider a  few  detail  examples  shortly,  comprehensive  at- 
tention should  be  given  to  the  condition  of  the  line  shafting,  pulleys, 
and  belting.  Good  forms  of  standard  shaft  hangers  and  bearings 
should  be  adopted ;  good  forms  of  pulleys  and  standard  belting  speci- 
fied. The  oiling  arrangements  for  the  shafting  should  be  made  conven- 
ient and  some  regular  system  of  attending  to  them  adopted. 

The  condition  of  the  belting  determines  very  largely  the  efficiency 
of  the  machine,  making  very  considerable  difference  in  the  producing 
Modern  Sh  capacity  of  a  whole  shop.  Therefore  this  small  item  de- 
Belting  serves  all  the  attention  required  to  maintain  it  in  very 
Methods.  ^^  efficiency.  It  is  the  more  desirable  to  do  so  as  effi- 
cient belting  inspection  and  repair  costs  less  than  one-third  as  much 
as  the  ordinary  practice. 

The  three  pictures  on  the  right  of  the  illustration  show  the  various 
short  connecting  lengths  kept  by  a  belt  inspector,  to  take  up  slack. 
The  long  piece  is  put  in  first,  and  as  the  belt  stretches,  the  other  pieces 
are  substituted  in  turn.  The  picture  on  the  left  shows  a  contrast  to 
this  good  belt  fastening. 

In  one  of  the  largest  locomotive  works  in  the  world  I  saw  this  fast- 
ening used  less  than  a  year  ago,  so  that  it  is  evidently  common,  very 
common,  practice.  It  is,  however,  very  inefficient,  because  the  joint 
is  much  weaker  than  the  rest  of  the  belt,  and  because  the  mode  of  fast_ 
ening  tears  the  belt. 

Roughly,  the  cost  of  belting,  maintenance,  etc.,  is  between  1  per 
cent  and  2  per  cent  of  the  pay-roll  cost  of  running  the  machine  shop; 
I  have  seen  not  less  than  three  instances  on  a  large  scale  of  this  cost  being 
reduced  to  one-quarter  of  one  per  cent.  However,  I  would  emphasize 
the  matter  of  attention  to  belting,  not  so  much  from  the  saving  in  the 
cost  of  the  belting  itself  as  on  account  of  giving  a  better  service  to  the 
general  machine  equipment. 

'See  article,  "The  Surcharge  Problem,"  by  C.  J.  Morrison,  In  American  Engineer  and 
Railroad  Journal,  October,  1906. 


Centralization  of  Machine   Tool  Equipment.        121 


FlG.    71 A  WRONG  METHOD  OF  PREVENTING   BELTS    SLIPPING   BY  COATING   THE 

FACE  OF  PULLEYS  WITH  ROSIN. 


FIG.  72 — THE  COMMON  METHOD  OF  BELT  FASTENING  WITH  BRASS  CLEATS  AND 
THE  MORE  EFFICIENT  AND  ECONOMICAL  SPIRAL  WIRE  LACING  HINGING  ON  A  RAW- 
HIDE PIN.  UNIT-SHORTENING  SECTIONS  OF  VARIOUS  LENGTHS  ARE  SHOWN  READY 
TO  APPLY. 


Betterment  Briefs. 


FIG.   73 — HIGH-SPEED  TOOLS  AND  TOOL-HOLDERS  ARRANGED  TO   SHOW  THE 
SAVING  IN  STEEL  BY  THE  USE  OF  HOLDERS  OVER  THE  OLD-STYLE  SOLID  TOOLS. 


FIG.  74 — OLD  AND  NEW  STYLES  OF  LATHE  TOOLS  COMPARED,  TO  SHOW  THE 
SUPERIORITY  OF  THE  LATER  DESIGNS  IN  STRENGTH  AND  SUPPORT  DIRECTLY  UNDER 

THE   CUTTING    NOSE.       NOTE    THE    WEAKNESS   OF    THE    OLD    "  GOOSENECK"    DESIGN 
AT  THE   POINT   IT   SHOULD   BE   STRONGEST. 


Centralization  of  Machine  Tool  Equipment.        123 

After  these  general  improvements  of  shafting,  pulleys,  belting,  and 

strengthening  of  machines  have  been  started,  the  next  step  is  to  speed 

up  the  line  and  counter  shafts  by  using  larger  driving 

Speeding  up  pulleys.  As  a  result  of  such  a  general  move  the  ma- 
Macninery. 

chines  will  all  run  more  rapidly  from  this   cause  alone, 

and  an  increase  in  production  will  result,  of  which  generally  the  men 
are  unconscious,  especially  when  the  changes  are  made  Sundays  and 
nights.  Were  they  conscious  of  any  organized  effort  toward  increasing 
the  output  they  would  probably  spend  much  time  and  thought  in  an 
attempt  to  circumvent  such  a  plan.1 

While  these  changes  may  be  said  to  be  going  on  overhead,  concurrent 
efforts  should  be  made  with  regard  to  equipping  the  machines  with 
Special  such  steacty  rests,  angle  plates,  special  bolts,  dogs,  chucks, 

Machine  and  the  like,  air  hoists  and  clamps,  as-  will  benefit  the 

Equipment.  character  of  the  work  on  each  machine,  and  also  the  cut- 
ting tools  should  be  standardized  and  the  machines  well  provided  with 
them. 

High-speed  steel  will  of  course  be  very  extensively  used.  As  the 
capabilities  of  these  new  steels  are  not  fully  understood  by  some  of 
the  men  when  they  are  first  brought  into  the  shops,  there  is  some 
difficulty  in  getting  them  to  dispense  with  their  old  tools.  A  way  to 
enforce  the  use  of  the  rapid-reduction  tools  is  to  scrap,  or  take  out  of 
service,  every  old  tool. 

The  illustration  shows  an  example  of  standardized  tools. 

The  diamond-pointed,  curved,  gooseneck  shape,  weak  and  unsup- 
ported where  it  should  be  strongest  and  best  supported,  was  very  com- 
mon in  our  shops,  and  a  standard  style,  five  years  ago.  In  fact,  at 
Old  and  New  ^e  Presen^  day  this  tool  may  be  seen  in  use  in  many 
Lathe  Tools  shops.  Recently  I  noted  in  passing  through  the  instruc- 
Compared.  ^Qn  s^Op  of  an  engineering  college  that  the  young  men 
were  being  taught  to  forge  and  grind  their  tools  in  this  way.  In  con- 
trast to  this  poor  design,  note  the  modern  design  of  round  nose,  most 
efficient  in  cutting  action,  enabling  a  large  chip  to  be  removed,  and  well 
supported  by  the  tool  post. 

By  means  of  these  general  machine  improvements  alone,  which 
with  intelligent  direction  will  not  increase  the  cost  of  the  tool  account 
at  all,  but  will,  in  fact,  enable  it  to  be  reduced  even  while  these  whole- 
sale improvements  are  being  carried  forward,  a  great  increase  in  shop 
efficiency  will  result,  without  stirring  up  any  labor  difficulty. 

'See  illustrations  on  pp.  39,135,  showing  increased  feed  cone  pulleys  after  high-speed  tools 
were  adopted. 


124  Betterment  Briefs. 

A  detail  example  of  machine  re-design  is  here  given.  The  illustra- 
tion on  p.  118  shows  on  the  left  the  old  method  of  supplying  cylinder 
Example  of  bushings.  The  casting  is  much  too  heavy,  and  the  cross- 
Machine  arms,  made  so  that  the  bushing  could  be  centered  in  a 
Re-Design.  lathe  and  turned  off  previous  to  boring,  were  quite  diffi- 
cult to  cast.  The  bushing  on  the  right  is  much  cheaper  to  make. 

The  old  method  of  housing  a  bushing  after  it  had  been  turned  in 
the  lathe  so  it  can  be  bored  in  a  horizontal  mill  is  shown  by  the  ac- 
companying illustration.  This  large  wooden  block,  for  use  with  each 
size  of  bushing,  is  a  very  clumsy  and  unsatisfactory  contrivance. 
The  housing  with  set  screws  shown  below  was  therefore  devised  and 
Ch  .  gave  good  satisfaction,  as  the  work  could  be  accurately 
the  Design  of  centered  for  boring  and  then  mounted  on  a  mandrel  and 
Housings.  turned  up  in  a  lathe.  So  soon,  however,  as  high-speed 
steel  tools  were  used  in  the  horizontal  boring  mill  it  was  found  that 
this  new  housing  was  not  sufficiently  rigid,  and  a  more  substantial  one 
was  designed,  which  stood  up  to  all  the  requirements. 

Then,  however,  the  strain  on  the  machine  was  so  great  that  the  belt 

Substitution  ^  woulc*  not  Pu^  ^e  cut  *kat  ^e  to°^  was  a^e  to  stan^,  and 
of  Wider  a  heavier  and  wider  belt  had  to  be  provided.  In  order  to 

Driving  Belt.  uge  ^  ^ide  keit;  the  four-cone  pulley  was  displaced  and 
a  three-cone  substituted. 

It  was  found  that  the  cast-iron  worm  gear  ran  hot  under  these  heavy 
cuts,  and  a  bronze  gear  was  made  to  take  its  place.  The  cast-iron  gear 
Fi  al  Chan  es  *s  s^own  m  ^ne  l°wer  left-hand  of  the  picture,  the  bronze 
and  Finished  gear  up  in  place.  When  the  machine  was  thus  re-designed 
Machine.  for  use  m  neavv  WOrk  it  developed  that  the  electric  motor 

was  not  sufficiently  powerful  for  the  purpose,  and  one  of  twice  the 
horse-power  had  to  be  then  put  in  place.  This  displaced  motor  is 
shown  on  the  floor. 

This  series  of  improvements  resulted  in  a  much  better  machine 
than  could  be  bought  upon  the  open  market,  and  they  cost  less  than 
a  new  machine  built  to  order  by  any  outside  manufacturing  concern. 

Speaking  of  high-speed  tools:  it  soon  becomes  evident  when  these 
heavy  service  tools  are  introduced  in  a  shop,  that  many,  in  fact  most 
of  the  machines,  are  not  up  to  the  capacity  of  the  tools.  Line  shafts 
are  speeded  up,  and  driving  pulleys  enlarged.  It  is  then  found  that 
the  feeds,  too,  must  be  increased,  to  take  full  advantage  of  the  cutting 
qualities  of  the  new  tools. 

It  was  found  necessary  to  make  a  number  of  changes  in  the  large 


Centralization  of  Machine   Tool  Equipment.         125 


FIG.  75 — THE  ORIGINAL  WOODEN  HOUSING  FOR  CYLINDER  BUSHINGS  USED  IN 
CONNECTION  WITH  BORING  .MILL. 


FIG.  76 — THE  FIRST  IMPROVEMENT  MADE  IN  THE  BORING  MILL.  CAST-IRON 
HOUSINGS  WITH  ADJUSTING  SCREWS  TOOK  THE  PLACE  OF  THE  OLD  WOODEN  BLOCKS 
FOR  HOLDING  THE  BUSHINGS. 


126 


Betterment  Briefs. 


FIG.  77 — THE  HOUSINGS  WERE  RE-DESIGNED  AS  SHOWN,  AFTER  THE  INTRO- 
DUCTION OF  HIGH-SPEED  TOOLS,  IN  ORDER  TO  OBTAIN  SUFFICIENT  STRENGTH  AND 
RIGIDITY  TO  WITHSTAND  THE  HEAVIER  CUTS. 


FIG.  78 — BRONZE  WORM  GEAR  THAT  TOOK  THE  PLACE  OF  A  CAST-IRON  GEAR 
WHICH  FAILED  UNDER  THE  HEAVY  SERVICE  OF  HIGH-SPEED  TOOLS. 


Centralization  of  Machine   Tool  Equipment.         127 


FIG.  79 — THE  RECONSTRUCTED  MACHINE.  THE  CAPACITY  OF  THE  MACHINE 
WAS  DOUBLED  BY  THE  IMPROVEMENTS  MADE,  AND  THE  ORIGINAL  MOTOR  WAS 
REPLACED  BY  ONE  OF  TWICE  THE  HORSEPOWER. 


Betterment  Briefs. 


FIG.  80 — LATER  IMPROVEMENTS  IN  THE  DESIGN  OF  THE  MACHINE  WERE  MADE 
WHICH  GREATLY  IMPROVED  ITS  STRENGTH,  CONVENIENCE  OF  OPERATION  AND  OUT- 
PUT. 


Centralization  of  Machine   Tool  Equipment.         129 


III 


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H  P  W 

S   55   H 


O  7. 


130 


Betterment  Briefs. 


Centralization  of  Machine   Tool  Equipment.         131 

frame  planer  shown.  When  this  machine  was  speeded  up  and  heavy 
cuts  taken  with  high-speed  tools,  the  driving-gear  stripped  off  a  tooth 
at  one  time  or  another.  Teeth  were  in  some  cases  inserted,  as  shown 
Improvement*  *ft  wmte  on  ^ms  picture,  and  in  other  cases  pegs  were 
Made  in  tapped  in.  It  was  finally  decided  to  put  in  a  steel 

Large  Planer.     gear^  but    as  ^   woul(1   have    taken    severai    months    to 

send  to  the  foundry  and  secure  a  steel  casting  as  required,  a  cast- 
iron  center  was  hurriedly  ordered  and  a  steel  band  forged  in  the 
smith  shop,  and  machined  and  shrunk  as  shown  in  the  accom- 
panying illustration.  Some  idea  of  the  capacity  of  the  recon- 
structed planer  will  be  gained  from  the  photograph  taken  while  planing 
steel  castings,  using  a  %2  in.  feed  with  both  heads. 

The  substitution  of  a  large  for  a  small  feed  cone  pulley  on  a  bolt 
lathe  in  order  to  increase  the  feeds  in  addition  to  the  speed  was  made 
as  shown  by  the  illustration.     When  it  is  remembered  that  the  main- 
line   shafts  of   the   shop    were   speeded  up  50  per  cent 
Lath^Fefds       anc^  tne  pulley  driving  the  countershaft  for  this  particu- 
lar lathe  30  per  cent  in  addition,  upon  the  introduction 
of  high-speed  steels  in  this   shop,  the  additional  rapidity  incident  to 
the  use  of  this  feed  cone  pulley  will  be  appreciated. 

In  the  early  stages  of  the  development  of  the  high-speed  alloy-steel 
tools,  it  was  realized  that  the  physical  properties  of  these  steels,  in 
affording  material  for  tools  capable  of  greater  cutting  speeds,  feeds, 
and  cuts,  would  react  upon  the  machine  tools  themselves,  and,  in  the 
Infl  ence  of  case  °^  new  macnmes>  necessitate  improved  design,  and 
High-Speed  adaptation  to  the  new  conditions  in  the  case  of  old  ma- 
chlne°Desilrn  cmnes>  requiring  re-design  of  some  parts  and  reconstruc- 
tion. Of  course  with  the  new  steels  greater  strains  are 
encountered  than  those  for  which  the  machines  had  been  designed. 
Now  it  is  a  fact  that  so  far  there  have  been  very  few  recently 
designed  machines  turned  out  by  the  manufacturers  which  are 
altogether  adapted  and  suitable  for  use  with  these  new  tools,  not- 
withstanding the  very  pertinent  observations  and  suggestions  of  Mr. 
Oberlin  Smith  and  of  the  early  users  and  advocates  of  the  new  steels. 
Besides  this  condition,  the  original  commercial  machines,  when  put 
into  a  railroad  shop,  are  not  always  suited  to  the  work  they  are  to  do. 
A  gang  drill  will  be  strongly  advocated  by  some  agent  on  account  of 
the  speed  with  which  it  can  do  certain  classes  of  work,  and  the  master 


132  Betterment  Briefs. 

mechanic  or  other  officer  having  charge  of  the  local  shop,  being  much 
Imor  er  impressed  with  the  argument,  will  ask  for  such  a  machine 
Selection  of  on  his  budget,  unmindful  of  the  fact  that  the  classes  of 
Machinery.  Work  on  which  this  machine  can  be  economically  used 
will  not  occur  more  than  once  or  twice  a  month.  Had  the  money 
thus  invested  been  spent  for  a  thoroughly  substantial  and  modern 
radial  drill,  or  for  general  improvements  and  repair  of  all  of  the  rest 
of  the  shop  drilling  equipment,  much  larger  returns  in  economies  of 
shop  production  would  have  resulted.  Of  course  I  do  not  mean  to  say 
that  in  a  very  large  centralized  railroad  shop  a  gang  drill  would  not 
be  a  useful  and  a  profitable  acquisition.  I  am  referring  to  the  usual 
railroad  back  shop.  t 

Another  instance  of  a  special  tool  supposed  to  be  of  great  economy 
is  that  of  a  large  hydraulic  flanging  press  and  adjacent  annealing  fur- 
nace, purchased  with  the  intention  of  pressing  from  the  steel  plates, 
throat  sheets,  door  sheets,  fire-doors  or  fire-door  flanges,  front-end 
rings  and  front-end  doors,  cylinder-head  casings,  and  even  steam-dome 
,-  flanges  from  IJ-inch  metal.  For  each  of  these  different 
ment  in  Se-  parts  separate  dies  or  formers  have  to  be  made,  these 

lection  of  being    manifold    in    number    for   each  of   the   principal 

special  iooi.  .        .  . 

classes  of  locomotives  in  service,  and  furnace,  an  invest- 
ment of  $30,000  to  $40,000  was  sunk  in  these  various  formers.  To 
set  the  machine  up  for  flanging  or  pressing  out  any  article  required 
from  two  to  ten  hours'  time  of  a  skilled  mechanic,  helper,  and  a  couple 
of  laborers,  besides  the  services  of  a  gang  of  laborers  to  bring  the  heavy 
formers  into  the  shop  from  their  storage  place.  Once  the  machine  was 
set  up,  of  course  the  flanging  would  be  done  quite  rapidly,  and  with 
relatively  few,  though  skilled,  men.  But  when  it  is  considered  that 
(1)  these  large  articles  are  not  usually  required  in  quantity,  (2)  the 
formers  often  crack  and  new  ones  have  to  be  made,  and  in  any  case  are 
very  difficult  to  adjust,  and  (3)  above  all,  that  a  sum  not  far  from 
$50,000,  meaning  an  interest  charge  (at  6  per  cent)  of  a  dollar  for  every 
work  hour  in  the  year,  not  to  speak  of  cost  of  power  consumed  and 
various  repair  charges  to  the  machines  themselves,  it  will  be  seen  that 
for  even  a  large  centralized  railroad  shop  the  old-fashioned  gang  of 
boiler-maker  flangers  with  their  wooden  flanging  mallets  and  simple 
slab-formers,  in  addition,  perhaps,  to  a  modern  oil-annealing  furnace, 
would  be  much  more  economical. 

I  have  cited  these  two  cases  simply  as  an  illustration  of  the  point 
that  fitness  to  the  product  in  view  is  not  the  ruling  motive  of  the  sellers 


Centralization  of  Machine  Tool  Equipment.         133 


FlG.    81 A    LARGE    FRAME    PLANER    AND    ITS    OLD    CAST-IRON    DRIVING    GEAR 

THAT  WAS  NOT  STRONG  ENOUGH  TO  WITHSTAND  THE  HEAVY  CUTS  TAKEN  WITH 
HIGH-SPEED  TOOLS.  ON  THE  RIGHT  IS  THE  MECHANIC  WHO  PUSHED  THIS  MACHINE 
UP  TO  THE  LIMIT,  AND  THE  LEFT  THE  PROGRESSIVE  FOREMAN  WHO  HAS  DONE  MUCH 
IN  AN  ENERGETIC  WAY  TO  INTRODUCE  MODERN  METHODS  IN  A  RAILROAD  SHOP. 


Betterment  Briefs. 


FIG.  82 — THE  OLD  AND  NEW  DRIVING  GEARS  FOR  FRAME  PLANER.  THE  ONE 
ON  THE  LEFT  IS  THE  ORIGINAL  GEAR  OF  CAST-IRON.  THE  FAILURE  OF  THIS  GEAR 
UNDER  THE  HEAVY  DUTY  IMPOSED  EY  HIGH-SPEED  TOOLS  IS  SHOWN  IN  THE  LARGE 
NUMBER  OF  BROKEN  TEETH.  THE  NEW  STEEL-RIMMED  GEAR  SUBSTITUTED  FOR 
THE  OLD  ONE,  IS  SHOWN  ON  THE  RIGHT.  THE  HUB  IS  OF  CAST  IRON  AND  THE  RIM 
OF  STEEL  FORGED  IN  THE  BLACKSMITH  SHOP,  AND  SHRUNK  ON.  THE  GEAR  THUS 
MADE  IS  AS  SERVICEABLE  AS  ONE  OF  ALL  STEEL,  AND  MUCH  CHEAPER. 


FIG.  83 — THE   RECONSTRUCTED   PLANER  TAKING  A   I^IN.  COT  WITH   SVIN- 

FEED  ON  STEEL  CASTING.  THIS  GIVES  A  GOOD  IDEA  OF  THE  CAPACITY  OF  THE 
MACHINE  AND  WHAT  MAY  BE  ACCOMPLISHED  BY  A  PROGRESSIVE  SHOP  ORGANIZA- 
TION IN  THE  BETTERMENT  OF  MACHIXE  TOOLS. 


Centralization  of  Machine  Tool  Equipment.        135 


FIG.  84 — VIEW  OF  BOLT  LATHE  SHOWING  THE  INCREASED  SIZE  OF  FEED  CONE 
PULLEY  AFTER  HIGH-SPEED  TOOLS  WERE  ADOPTED. 


136 


Betterment  Briefs 


FIG.  85 — VIEWS  SHOWING  THE  INCREASE  MADE  IN  SIZE  OF  FEED  GEAR  ON 
AXLE  LATHE  AFTER  THE  ADOPTION  OF  HIGH-SPEED  TOOLS. 


Centralization  of  Machine  Tool  Equipment.          137 


FIG.  86 — BORING  MILL  EQUIPPED  WITH  CHAIN  DRIVE.  AN  IMPROVEMENT 
MADE  BY  A  MACHINE  FOREMAN  THAT  HAS  RESULTED  IN  A  GREATLY  INCREASED 
OUTPUT  FROM  THE  MACHINE. 


138 


Betterment  Briefs. 


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Standardization  of  Small  Tools.  139 

of  machine  equipment.     What  I  wish  at  this  point  further  to  develop, 

_      "'  however,  is,  that  such  fitness  can  be  secured  with  very 

Economy  in  J 

Reconstruction  great   economy,    in  regard  to  fixed  or    overcharges,   by 

M  Shiner  intelligent  and  systematic  re-design,  by  partial  recon- 
struction, and  by  increasing  the  speed  and  capacity  of 
the  old  tool  equipment.  It  may  be  confidently  asserted  that  there  is 
scarcely  a  railroad  in  the  country  which  does  not  possess  nearly 
twice  the  number  of  machine  tools  that  it  actually  needs  to  keep  up 
its  power  and  rolling  equipment,  provided  these  tools  were  properly 
"  balanced "  with  reference  to  one  shop  and  another,  and  used  with  the 
object  of  gettng  the  utmost  from  their  investments. 

If  this  reformation  of  tool  equipment  is  followed  up  by  some  sys- 
tem of  rewarding  labor  according  to  individual  effort,  or  some  other 
financial  incentive  toward  time  reduction  in  machining  and  other  op- 
erations, full  benefit  from  these  improvements  will  speedily  result. 


IV.    STANDARDIZATION  OF  THE  SMALL-TOOL  EQUIPMENT. 

It  needs  no  argument  to  point  out  that  if  the  small  hand  tools  used 
with  air  motors  and  otherwise  in  the  erecting  shop  and  on  the  bench, 
are  reduced  to  a  uniform  standard  throughout  the  shops  of  an  entire 
railway  system,  economies  in  either  the  purchase  or  manufacture  of 
these  tools  will  result.  This  standardization  should  exist,  from  the 
drift  pins  and  chisels  to  the  type  of  screw  or  pipe  wrench  decided  upon. 

It  will  often  happen  that  the  foreman  of  one  shop  will  order  a  grade 
of  steel  for  his  chisels  more  expensive  than  there  is  need  for,  or  that  a 
Economy  of  boiler-maker  foreman  at  another  point  will  select  some 
Standardizing  special  high-grade  round  steel  from  which  to  make  his  flue 
Sma  oo  s.  roners  At  another  point,  machinists' hammers  will  be 
forged  on  stock  order  instead  of  being  obtained  through  requisition 
and  purchasing  agent,  although  the  home-made  hammer  is  not  of  as 
good  quality  nor  shape,  nor  nearly  so  cheap  in  labor,  as  the  purchased 
article.  In  this  connection  it  should  be  noted,  however,  that  it  would 
be  best  for  the  railroad  to  "handle"  its  own  hammers,  as  the  usual 
handle  furnished  by  the  manufacturer  is  not  satisfactory. 

These  small  items  here  mentioned  are  not  imaginary  ones,  but  cases 
from  actual  experience,  each  representing  in  the  aggregate  thousands 
of  dollars  for  the  railroad  in  question. 

Most  railroads  at  the  present  day  have  standardized  their  beading 
tcois,  and  furnish  from  their  central  tool-rooms  standard  gauges  by 


140  Betterment  Briefs. 

which  to  try  these  for  each  shop.     There  are  other  boiler-makers'  tools 
Standard  which   should   be   similarly   standardized,   such   as   flue 

Boiler-makers'  rollers  for  use  with  the  air  motor,  which  should  always 
be  self-feeding ;  an  illustration  of  these  has  been  shown  in 
a  previous  article.  These  when  standardized  can  be  more  economically 
manufactured  in  the  central  tool-room  than  purchased  from  the  rail- 
way-supply concerns,  and  can  also  be  more  promptly  furnished  on 
requisition.  Another  advantage  of  standardizing  these  tools  is  that 
Centralized  a^  ^e  rollers  will  be  of  uniform  size  for  each  type  of 
Manufacture  flue  rollers,  and  the  other  parts  of  the  tool  will  be  inter- 
changeable  and  supplies  can  be  more  economically 
carried  in  stock  and  renewals  made  than  is  usually  the 
case  where  each  shop  has  an  agglomeration  of  the  various  types  of  roll- 
ers, purchased  now  from  this  manufacturer,  now  from  that,  many  of 
them  having  the  small  rollers  missing,  necessitating  special  sizes  to  be 
turned  to  fit  them.  The  economies  in  the  cost  price  of  these  tools 
here  cited  do  not  take  account  of  the  much  more  serious  wastes  in  the 
time  of  the  men  learning  to  use  the  different  types  of  rollers  and  at- 
tempting to  get  satisfactory  results  from  them.  It  is  needless  to  point 
out  that  where  a  standard  flue  roller  is  adopted,  a  man  once  learning 
its  use  will  always  be  able  to  handle  it  to  the  best  advantage,  even 
though  he  be  transferred  from  one  shop  to  another  shop1. 

Another  boiler  tool  that  should  be  standardized  is  the  set  of  taper 
plug  taps.  These  should  be  made  of  standard  diameter  and  taper, 
and  should  be  tried  out  by  standard-thread  gauge  at  each  shop  at 
Economies  in  ^eas^  once  a  naonth.  The  economy  in  having  such  plug 
Standardizing  taps  standard  lies  not  so  much  in  the  economy  of 

Taps* ?1Ug  ^e  in^ls^  cost  °f  tlie  tools  themselves  as  in  the 
lessened  cost  of  finished  plugs,  manufactured  at  the 
central  shops  in  large  quantities  and  sent  to  outlying  points  on  requi- 
sition. Similarly,  staybolt  taps  should  be  standardized  and  inspected, 
enabling  staybolts  to  be  centralized  in  their  manufacture,  produced 
economically,  and  furnished  to  the  outlying  points  as  required  instead 
of  having  each  small  shop  turn  up  and  thread  its  own  staybolts  as  the 
requirements  of  some  particular  engine  demand. 

Chisels  and  beading  tools  lead  to  the  mention  of  the 
Hand&and          special   types   of  tools  used  with  an  air  hammer.     The 
Air  Hammer      shanks   of   these  tools  should  be  standardized  and   the 
hammer  bushed  to  carry  the  standard  shank. 

k        'See  illustration  of  standard  flue  rollers,  p.  91. 


Standardization  of  Small  Tools.  141 

Furthermore,  a  standard  design  of:  (1)  flat  chisel;  (2)  cape  chisel; 
(3)  round-nose  chisel;  (4)  diamond-point  chisel;  (5)  ripping  tool; 
(6)  caulking  tool,  and  one  or  two  others,  should  be  adopted. 

The  steps  that  have  been  here  briefly  indicated  for 
tion  Applicable  tne  boiler  tools  are  equally  applicable  to   the   erecting 
to  all  Small       shop  and  bench  tools,  to  the  tools  of  sheet-iron  workersy 
tin-  and  copper-smiths,  and  others. 

The  economies  resulting  in  a  general  standardization  of  small  tools 
over  an  entire  railway  will  be  considerable.  It  is  worth  while  to  pur- 
sue a  systematic  policy  of  collecting  up  all  the  spare  tool  equipment,, 
and  this  will  necessitate  the  frequent  inspection  of  all  lockers  to  thin 
out  the  accumulations  of  pet  tools  carefully  hoarded  by  selfish  workmen. 

The  possibilities  of  saving  in  the  wise  selection  and  care  of  small 
tools  used  on  the  machines  are,  however,  quite  as  great  as  in  the  case 
of  hand  tools,  and  probably  play  a  more  important  part  in  effecting 
economical  manufacture.  The  advantages  of  the  new  high-speed  alloy 
steels  over  the  old  carbon  and  self-hardening  varieties  have  been  thor- 
oughly explained  within  the  last  two  years,  and  there  is  no  need  to 
dwell  at  length  upon  the  changes  that  these  new  steel  tools  have  wrought 
and  are  working  in  the  machine  shop  of  today  and  in  the  construction 
of  the  machines  themselves.  But  the  question  was  always  raised  as 
to  whether  these  steels  should  entirely  displace  the  older  steels  in  the 
shops,  as  to  the  quantity  of  new  steels  it  would  be  economy  to  purchase, 
and  as  to  the  method  of  disposition  and  custody  of  these  expensive 
steels — and  tools  made  from  them — when  purchased. 

From  an  extensive  experience  with  just  this  problem  from  the  very 
first  introduction  of  steels  into  railroad  work,  I  should  advocate  with 
few  exceptions  that  all  the  tools  used  on  the  machines — that  is,  on  the 
Shop  to  be  planers,  lathes,  slotters  and  shapers,  vertical  and  hori- 

Completely  zontal  boring  mills — should  be  replaced  with  high-speed 
Equipped  with  .  ,  ^,  .  .U1  ,.  ,  ,  7° 

High-Speed        tools.      The     permissible    exceptions    would    be    some 

Tools.  of  the  finishing  tools,  and  possibly  tools  used  on  soft 

brass  or  on  babbitt.  This  wholesale  condemnation  of  the  existing 
tool  equipment  is  advisable  both  on  account  of  its  permitting  a  gen- 
eral speeding  up  of  the  machine  tools  and  because  of  its  securing  stand- 
ardization of  size,  shape,  cutting  edges,  rakes,  method  of  grinding,  etc., 
of  the  machine  tools,  instead  of  leaving  these  important  matters  to  the 
individual  preference  of  the  men.  A  few  of  the  tools  so  displaced  in 
one  shop  are  shown  in  the  article  of  this  series  in  the  preceding  month. 
The  usual  practice  in  many  railroad  shops  is  for  the  mechanic  to  select 


142  Betterment  Briefs, 

the  size  bar  he  wishes  a  tool  made  from,  and  to  stand  by  the  black- 
smith tool  fire  and  supervise  the  hammering  out  and  shaping  of  the 
tool  to  suit  his  individual  taste.  This  practice  results  in  many  tools 
being  far  below  the  efficiency  that  should  obtain,  and  is  a  source  of 
great  waste  of  the  workman's  time.  Both  of  these  disadvantages  are 
overcome  by  the  policy  of  centralized  manufacture,  from  standard 
Centralized  design,  of  all  tools  of  this  kind.  In  a  shop  of  large 
Manufacture  size  it  is  advisable  even  to  carry  this  specialization  of 
of  Tools.  work  on  these  tools  to  the  regrinding  in  the  tool-room, 

instead  of  permitting  the  men  to  regrind  them  themselves. 

The  following  illustration  shows  a  large  rack  in  a  central  storehouse 
Ideal  T  1  ^or  no^mS  a  complete  stock  of  standard  punches,  machine 
Rack  for  tools,  reamers,  taps,  etc.,  manufactured  in  a  central  tool- 

Central  Store.  room  These  supplies  are  shipped  to  outside  points  on 
requisition. 

If  with  this  system  of  centralized  manufacture  there  is  combined 
a  supervision  system  whereby  each  local  tool-room  foreman  keeps  a 
list  of  each  and  every  high-speed  tool  issued  and  checks  the  same  over 
in  the  shop  at  least  once  a  month,  the  greatest  efficiency  in  tools  will 
Supervision  resiu%  for  tne  kind  of  tools  best  adapted  for  the  work  will 
of  Tools  and  be  in  service,  and  the  smallest  number  for  the  output  will 
be  in  use.  The  records  will  further  serve  to  regulate  the 
apportionment  of  tools,  and  by  calling  attention  to  certain  needs  of  the 
department  in  the  way  of  tool  equipment,  should  prevent  a  haphazard 
and  wasteful  expenditure.1 

Another  way  in  which  investment  in  high-speed  steel  can  be  kept  at 
a  low  figure,  and  costs  in  the  manufacture  of  tools  be  reduced,  is  by 
means  of  a  special  design  of  chuck  for  use  with  the  high-speed  steel 

High-Speed  ^at  ^r^'  ^  ^as  ^een  snown  ky  test  an(*  in  practical 
Flat  Drill  work  that  a  fiat  drill  when  properly  shaped  and  ground 

and  Chuck.  jg  ag  efficient  for  drilling  cast  iron  as  a  twist  drill.  In- 
asmuch as  the  cost  of  manufacturing  a  flat  drill  from  plain  bar  steel 
is  much  less  than  that  of  machining  a  twist  drill,  and  as  a  twist  drill 
requires  more  material  for  the  same  size  than  a  flat  drill,  it  will  be 
readily  seen  that  in  providing  these  tools  over  an  entire  railway 
system  considerable  savings  are  possible. 

The  accompanying  illustration  shows  the  chuck  and  its  construc- 
tion. In  the  first  elements  on  the  left  are  shown  a  flat  drill  with  the 
pin  that  holds  it  in  the  Morse  taper  shank  which  stands  alongside  of 

1See  article.  "Care  and  Control  of  the  Small-Tool  Equipment  in  the  Shop,"  by  R.  Emer- 
son, in  Engineering  Magazine,  February,  1905. 


Standardization  of  Small  Tools. 


143 


FIG.  88 — HIGH-SPEED  FLAT  DRILL,  DRILL  CHUCK  AND  PARTS,  WITH  ASSEMBLED 
"PHANTOM"  VIEW,  SHOWING  THE  DRILL  IN  THE  CHUCK  READY  FOR  SERVICE.  THIS 
DRILL  IS  MADE  FROM  PLAIN  FLAT  BAR  TOOL-STEEL,  IS  MUCH  CHEAPER  TO  MANU- 
FACTURE THAN  THE  TWIST  DRILL,  AND  IS  NEARLY  AS  EFFICIENT  AT  HIGH  SPEEDS. 


FIG.  89 — GROUP  OF  STANDARD  FLAT  DRILL  CHUCKS,  MANUFACTURED  IN  CEN- 
TRAL TOOL-ROOM  FOR  DISTRIBUTION  TO  OUTSIDE  SHOPS. 


144 


Betterment  Briefs. 


FIG.  90 — CASE  FOR  HOLDING  STANDARD  TEMPLATES,  GAUGES,  COLLARS,  PLUGS, 
ETC.,  IN  CENTRAL  TOOL-ROOM.  THESE  GAUGES  REQUIRE  CAREFUL  HANDLING  IN 
ORDER  TO  PRESERVE  THEIR  ACCURACY. 


.    91 TOOL  RACK    FOR    HOLDING    SMALL    TOOLS    IN    SHOP    TOOL-ROOM.       THE 

RACK  IS  MADE  CHEAPLY,  BUT  IS  CONVENIENT  FOR  USE  AND  ECONOMICAL  OF  SPACE. 
THE  SHELVES  ARE  INTERCHANGEABLE.  NOTE  THE  LOWER  RACK  FOR  FILING  FLAT 
TEMPLATES  IN  VERTICAL  POSITION.  DESIGNED  BY  SHOP  SPECIALIST. 


Standardization  of  Small  Tools.  145 

it.  Next  are  shown  two  detached  jaws  which  hold  the  flat  drill  in 
place,  next  the  collar  or  coupling  bored  out  taper,  to  be  screwed  down 
in  place  over  them  with  the  spanner  wrench,  also  shown.  The  one  on 
the  right  shows  a  phantom  picture  of  the  drill  in  place  in  the  chuck 
with  the  collar  down. 

Following  are  shown  a  number  of  these  chucks  as  they  are  received 
finished  from  the  tool-room  ready  for  shipment  by  the  stores  depart- 
ment to  outlying  points  on  the  road.  Each  minor  shop  or  roundhouse 
is  supplied  with  one  or  more  of  these  chucks  for  use  in  the  drill  press, 
and  a  set  of  such  high-speed  flat  drills  as  may  be  needed. 

FUNCTIONS  OF  THE  TOOL-ROOM. — Greater  progress  has  been  made 
by  railroads  all  over  the  United  States  in  the  last  four  years  in  building 
new  shops  and  equipment  with  up-to-date  machinery,  such  as  motor- 
driven  machine  tools,  electric  cranes,  power  plants,  etc.,  than  had  been, 
made  in  the  previous  twenty-five  years. 

But  there  is  one  department  which  has  been  overlooked,  and  is  not 
up  to  the  standard  of  a  thoroughly  modern  manufacturing  concern, 
and  that  is  the  tool-room.  By  "  tool-room "  is  meant  that  part  of  the 
railroad  machine  shop  in  which  all  special  reamers,  taps, 
Too?-Room  Clltters,  jigs,  templates,  and  measuring  appliances,  etc., 
are  made,  stored,  and  preserved  in  a  satisfactory  working 
condition.  In  addition  to  these  functions,  the  average  railroad-shop 
tool-room  takes  care  of  all  repair  work,  such  as  the  repairing  of  all 
shop  machinery,  pile-drivers,  steam  shovels,  snow  plows,  automobiles, 
computing  and  adding  machines,  electric  and  otherwise  complicated 
locks,  time-locks,  penknives  belonging  to  officials,  etc.,  etc.  In  fact, 
the  tool-room  is  a  place  where  all  odd  jobs  are  taken.  But  this  extra 
work  can  only  be  done  at  the  expense  of  the  regular  tool-manufacturing. 
All  of  these  odd  jobs  should  come  under  a  separate  department,  de- 
voted to  such  repair  work. 

In  a  broad  sense  it  has  been  said  that  the  prime  function  of  the  tool- 
room is  to  act  in  the  capacity  of  an  arsenal  to  provide  the  management 
with  the  necessary  weapons  to  wage  war  upon  excessive  cost ;  the  word 
"excessive"  is  here  used  to  indicate  any  excess  of  cost  beyond  that 
minimum  at  which  it  is  possible  to  produce  the  article  to  be  manufac- 
tured. Now  and  then  a  master  mechanic  tells  us  he  has  built  and 
repaired  engines  without  having  any  tool-room  connected  with  the 
shop.  In  days  gone  by,  successful  battles  were  fought  with  clubs, 
bows  and  arrows;  but  what  chances  would  these  same  armies  stand 
with  a  modern  army  equipped  with  modern  weapons? 


146  Betterment  Briefs. 

An  aim  of  every  superintendent  of  motive  power  is  to  obtain  the 
most  extensive  output  possible  at  the  lowest  cost,  and  the  tool-room 
is  perhaps  the  most  important  factor  in  bringing  around  such  a  result. 

The  location  of  the  manufacturing  tool-room  should  be  separate 
from  the  tool-storing  and  distributing  department.  The  latter  depart- 
ment should  be  located  in  the  central  part  of  the  shop, 
^°  ^e  within  easy  access  of  all  workmen  requiring  tools. 
The  tool-manufacturing  part  should  manufacture  for  the 
entire  railway  system,  thereby  insuring  an  exact  standard  for  all  tools. 
Most  railroads  have  the  machine  foreman  run  the  tool-room  in  con- 
nection with  his  own  department ;  but  this  is  a  very  grievous  mistake, 
for  the  work  requires  a  competent  tool  man,  one  who  has  had  ex- 
tensive experience  in  tool  work  and  who  has  made  this  branch  a  special 
study ;  a  man  of  this  calibre  cannot  be  had  for  35  cents  or  40  cents  per 
hour. 

To  operate  a  tool-room  satisfactorily,  at  least  one  draughtsman 
should  be  associated  with  it  to  work  in  conjunction  with  the  general 
tool-room  foreman.  He  should  keep  a  record  of  all  tools  made,  and 
should  control  in  a  large  measure  the  locating  of  tools,  so  that  similar 
tools,  either  actually  in  stock  or  anticipated,  may  be  grouped  and 
numbered  according  to  size,  much  after  the  manner  of  indexing  and 
classifying  patterns  in  well-regulated  shops. 

In  a  previous  section  we  dealt  with  standardized  tools.  In  the 
illustration  of  punches  on  page  147,  it  will  be  observed  that  the 
non-standardized  punches  are  grouped  at  the  left  in  black.  These  were 
Standard  on^  a  ^ew  P^k6^  UP  in  about  fifteen  minutes'  hasty  rum- 

Punches  and  maging  of  a  Sunday  morning  in  one  shop.  It  will  be 
Dies*  noted  that  each  is  of  a  different  length,  and  of  a  different 

mode  of  fastening  at  the  base ;  moreover,  that  the  diameters  of  the 
bases  vary.  The  condition  all  over  the  whole  railroad  and  the  wide 
variety  in  style  of  punches  used,  can  be  guessed  from  this  one  ex- 
ample. The  punches  which  are  lighter  in  color  are  the  standard 
ones.  On  the  right  is  shown  a  stock  which  is  made  of  such  lengths 
and  styles  as  will  fit  it  to  the  particular  machines.  This  stock  re- 
places the  stock  with  which  the  machine  is  supplied  by  the  manufac- 
turer, and  serves  the  purpose  of  enabling  punches  of  standard  length  or 
height  to  be  used  in  all  cases.  It  will  be  noted  that  ths  upper  end  is 
threaded  to  engage  the  hexagon  coupling  shown  beside  the  stock. 
These  couplings  are  all  alike,  and  consequently  the  bases  of  all  punches 
can  be  made  alike.  In  order  to  save  material  in  making  small  punches, 


Standardization  of  Small  Tools. 


147 


FIG.  92 — GROUPS  OF  NON-STANDARD  AND  STANDARDIZED  PUNCHES  AND  STOCK. 
THE  MANY  TYPES  OF  PUNCHES  SHOWN  ON  THE  LEFT  WERE  REPLACED  BY  STANDARD 
PUNCHES  ADAPTED  TO  ALL  PUNCHING  PRESSES,  BY  THE  USE  OF  THE  STANDARD 
STOCK  AND  COUPLING  SHOWN  ON  THE  EXTREME  RIGHT. 


FIG.  93 — STANDARD  PUNCHES,  STOCKS,  COUPLINGS  AND  BUSHINGS,  AS  MAN- 
UFACTURED IN  QUANTITY  AND  BEFORE  SORTING  FOR  DISTRIBUTION  FROM  CENTRAL 
TOOL-ROOM  TO  ALL  OUTLYING  SHOPS,  THROUGH  THE  INTERMEDIARY  OF  THE  GEN- 
ERAL STORE. 


148 


Betterment  Briefs. 


FIG.  94 — GENERAL  ELEVATION  AND  SECTION  OF  STANDARD  STOCKS,  PUNCHES 
AND  DIES. 


Standardization  of  Small  Tools.  149 

instead  of  turning  these  from  a  large  bar  they  are  turned  from  a  small 
bar,  and  a  bushing  is  shown  also  in  the  illustration,  as  used  to  bring 
the  bases  to  standard  size.  The  material  thus  saved  comes  to  a  con- 
siderable amount  on  a  large  railroad. 

ECONOMICAL  LIMITS  OF  MANUFACTURE  IN  TOOL-ROOM. — The  prob- 
lem of  reducing  time  (cost)  in  the  manufacture,  repair,  and  assembling 
of  locomotive  parts  is  so  intimately  associated  with  the  character  of 
the  tools  and  devices  used  in  the  different  operations,  that 
^  *s  no^  l°&ical  ^°  separate  these  two  elements,  the  means 
of  Tools  and  employed  to  get  work  out  and  the  obtaining  of  maximum 
Production  efficiency  in  the  use  of  these  means.  For  this  reason  I 
have  always  considered  the  design  of  tools  and  jigs  of 
paramount  importance,  as  the  method  determines  in  advance  the  time 
limit  for  the  job;  while  the  matter  of  keeping  the  men  near  this  min- 
imum is  a  matter  of  discipline  of  men  rather  than  of  intelligent  direc- 
tion of  work. 

For  this  reason,  also,  a  railroad  shop  cannot  without  direct  loss 
avoid  manufacturing  a  considerable  proportion  of  tools  applicable  only 
to  the  peculiar  design  of  certain  locomotive  parts.  Even  if  these  tools 
could  be  purchased  from  the  manufacturer  for  less  than  their  cost  in  the 
local  shop,  it  would  be  a  doubtful  economy  to  order  them,  as  the  making 
Shop  Man-  °^  Detail  drawings  and  specifications  and  the  loss  resulting 
ufacture  of  in  work  from  delay  in  putting  new  methods  into  effect, 
Special  Tools.  ag  wey  ag  ^  disadvantage  of  not  having  supervision  and 
inspection  of  the  tools  during  their  manufacture,  would  more  than 
counterbalance  the  reduced  price.  But  as  a  matter  of  fact,  tool- 
manufacturing  concerns  are  no  better  equipped  for  handling  special 
designs  of  tools  than  a  well-planned  railroad  shop,  the  ability  to  turn 
out  such  articles  cheaply  depending  upon  the  experience  of  the  men 
in  charge  of  the  work,  and  not  upon  the  machines,  which  are  much  the 
same  under  both  conditions.  If,  however,  the  tools  are  not  produced 
under  intelligent  direction,  it  will  not  pay  for  a  railroad  shop  to  under- 
take their  manufacture. 

A  good  illustration  both  of  the  economy  secured  by  thought  and 
experience  in  the  initiation  of  quick  and  accurate  methods  in  locomo- 
tive work,  and  of  the  wastefulness  in  having  tool  manufacture  under- 
taken by  persons  unfamiliar  with  the  subject,  is  the  following. 

The  idea  was  to  standardize  work  on  crosshead  fits,  everything  to 
gauge  instead  of  continuing  the  old  hand  fit.  On  compound  engines, 


150  Betterment  Briefs. 

the  piston  rod  works  loose  in  the  crosshead,  and  wears  the  hole  oblong. 

To  true  out  these  holes  the  crosshead  has  hitherto  been 
Crosshead  put  in  a  machine  and  been  bored  out.  With  the  reamer 
and  Piston  fa^  was  made  for  this  purpose,  it  was  impossible  to  ream 

out  these  steel  crossheads,  as  the  reamer  was  not  properly 
designed  for  this  class  of  work,  the  flues  being  straight,  and  gouging 
into  the  work,  thereby  stalling  the  machine  and  breaking  off  the  end 
of  the  shank.  Therefore,  the  truing  up  of  these  holes  was  done  in  a 
boring  mill  and  took  about  six  hours.  More  often,  though,  the  holes 
were  let  go,  not  being  trued  up,  and  piston  rods  were  fitted  to  them 
in  this  state. 

Necessarily  the  life  of  "a  rod  so  fitted  would  be  only  one-half  the 
life  of  one  that  had  been  fitted  up  to  a  hole  that  was  properly  trued. 
With  the  present  standardized  reamers,  the  man  on  the  boring  mill 
reams  out  two  holes  per  hour.  On  one  hundred  and  twenty  compound 
engines  going  through  a  main  shop  in  a  year,  four  holes  being  reamed 
E  f  on  each  engine,  there  is  in  crossheads,  in  reaming  out 

Standard  crosshead  pinholes,  in  piston  heads,  a  saving  in  all  of 

Reamers.  over  $1^700.     Owing  to  cruder  methods,  the  same  work 

is  even  more  expensive  when  done  at  other  points  than  at  the  main 
shops.  These  figures  do  not  take  account  of  the  losses  in  life  of  piston 
rods. 

The  next  illustration  shows  the  evolution  of  the  crosshead  and 
piston-rod  reamer  from  a  rough  contrivance  of  wood  and  brass  to  a 

_  .  .  .  modern  one  made  of  high-grade  steel,  with  spiral  flutes,  in 
Evolution  of  7  . 

Crosahead          two  sections,  hollow  for  the  purpose  of  even  cooling  in  the 

Reamer.  tempering  process  and  with  soft-steel  arbor.  The  cross- 

head  reamer  is  extensively  described  in  the  "Economical  Limits  of 
Manufacture  in  Tool-Rooms." 

The  working  out  of  the  details  of  this  standardization  was  left  to 
the  mechanical  engineer  and  the  general  tool  foreman.  It  was  deter- 
mined in  advance  what  shops  were  to  be  supplied  with  the  reamers, 
Methods  of  anc*  e^^*  extra  blanks  were  provided  in  case  any  reamers 
Standardizing  were  spoiled  in  making,  or  additional  reamers  required. 
^  first-rate  quality  of  tool  steel  was  ordered  so  as  to 
prolong  the  life  of  cutting  edges  and  keep  down  the 
maintenance  and  high  item  of  grinding  a  reamer  of  this  character. 

At  the  time  the  drawing  was  made,  it  was  proposed  to  state  the 
material  and  details  of  design  of  reamers  and  arbors ;  but  it  was  finally 
decided  to  leave  these  matters  to  the  judgment  of  the  tool-room  foreman. 


Standardization  of  Small  Tools. 


151 


FIG.  95 — VIEW  ILLUSTRATING  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  THE  CROSSHEAD  REAMER. 


FIG.  96 — "  PHANTOM  '?  VIEW  OF  CROSSHEAD  REAMER,  SHOWING  HOLLOW  REAMER, 
AND  ARBOR  OF  PLAIN  MACHINERY  STEEL. 


Betterment  Briefs. 


v] 

Worse  Toptr#5 


I' Da*  a  Ms. 


Peamer  fluted  +tith  left  hand  spirali  6S'p,tch 
Cutting  edges  radal  and  diametrically  opposed. 


FIG.  97 — GENERAL  ELEVATION  OF  STANDARD  CROSSHEAD  REAMER  AND  ARBOR. 


'  FIG.  98 — GROUP  OF  FOUR  STANDARD  CROSSHEAD  REAMERS,  COMPLETELY 
FULFILLING  THE  REQUIREMENTS  IN  CROSSHEAD  AND  PISTON  FITS  OF  SEVERAL 
LARGE  CLASSES  OF  LOCOMOTIVES. 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 


OF 


Standardization  of  Small  Tools. 


153 


FIG.  99 — THE  KIND  OF  REAMERS,  WITHOUT  STANDARDS  AS  TO  SIZE,  TAPER,  LENGTH  , 

OR  MANNER  OF  CONSTRUCTION,  AND  DESIGN,  THAT  RESULTED  IN  ONE  SHOP  FROM 
THE  WORKING  OUT  OF  THE  IDEAS  OF  THE  INDIVIDUAL  FOREMAN.  THESE  REAMERS 
ARE  THEMSELVES  NOT  ONLY  SEVERALLY  MORE  EXPENSIVE  TO  CONSTRUCT  THAN 
THE  STANDARD  ONES,  AND  LESS  EFFICIENT  IN  OPERATION,  BUT  THEY  ALSO  MAKE 
THE  WORK  ON  THE  LOCOMOTIVES  VERY  COSTLY  IN  REPAIRS  AND  REPLACEMENTS. 


154 


Betterment  Briefs. 


40000' 
38000 
36000 
34000 
32000 
30000 
28000 
26000 
24000 
22000 
20000 

*  ' 

-.  -j 

1905                                                    1006                                                          1907 

Nillillllilllililllij 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

N 

.... 

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\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

X 

s 

x 

X 

^ 

The  Black  Line  is  a  Graphical  Representation  of  the  Expense  for  certain  Shop 
Maintenance  costs,  plotted  by  Months.  Each  Point  on  the  Line  or  "Graph"  is 
the  Average  Expenditure  for  each.month  of  the  twelve  mpnths  preceding.. 

A  REDUCTION  OF  $200,000  PER  YEAR  ON  AN  ACCOUNT  THAT  FORMERLY  RAN 
HALF  A  MILLION  DOLLARS  YEARLY.  THIS  ACCOUNT  HAS  BEEN  INCREASING  AT  THE 
RATE  OF  15  PER  CENT  PER  YEAR  FOR  THE  PAST  EIGHT  YEARS,  UNTIL  SEPTEMBER, 
1904,  WHEN  THE  BETTERMENT  WORK  WAS  STARTED.  NOTWITHSTANDING  MORE 
BUSINESS,  THIS  ACCOUNT  NOW  SHOWS  AN  AVERAGE  REDUCTION  OF  OVER  $200,000 
PER  YEAR  IN  ADDITION  TO  BETTER  TOOLS  AND  GREATER  EFFICIENCY  IN  TOOL 
SERVICE.  '  THIS  WAS  BROUGHT  ABOUT  THROUGH  STANDARDIZATION  AND  CEN- 
TRALIZED MANUFACTURE  OF  ALL  SHOP  TOOLS,  ALSO  BY  CLOSER  SUPERVISION  AT 
OUTSIDE  SHOPS.  IT  WILL  BE  NOTED  THE  ACCOUNT  IS  STILL  BEING  REDUCED. 


Erecting -Shop  Economies.  155 

The  labor  costs  were  made  as  low  as  they  proved  by  applying  com- 
mercial methods  in  the  manufacture,  doing  each  operation  on  all  the 
blanks  at  once.  From  the  time  the  material  arrived  to  the  date  the 
reamers  were  shipped  to  their  respective  destinations  was  three  months, 
not  interfering  with  regular  tool-room  work.  However,  as  the  general 
tool  foreman  left  the  tool-room  shortly  after  the  work  was  started,  he 
could  not  continue  to  give  the  matter  his  personal  attention.  In  con- 
sequence, upon  his  return  he  found  that  in  applying  arbors,  six  of  which 
had  already  been  made  of  machinery  steel,  the  acting  foreman  over 
tool-room  work  had  already  used  a  steel  at  46  cents  a  pound  for  these 
arbors  instead  of  machinery  steel  at  3  cents,  entailing  the  needless 
expenditure  of  $240.  The  more  expensive  steel  is  not  so  fit  for  the  pur- 
pose used,  being  more  brittle.  It  should  not  be  possible  for  mistakes 
of  this  kind  to  occur,  and  some  method  should  be  devised  for  checking 
up  tool  work,  so  that  it  may  be  properly  directed.  Unless  specific  in- 
structions are  issued  covering  all  details  of  importance,  too  much  leeway 
is  left  for  making  individual  variations  in  the  work. 

Many  benefits  would  accrue  from  having  an  efficient  inspection 
system,  including  statements  of  labor  and  material  on  each  order  for 
all  new  work  manufactured  in  shops.  The  tool-room  would  be  an  ex- 
cellent place  to  begin  this  inspection  system,  if  it  is  proposed  to  carry 
on  the  manufacture  of  tools  there  on  an  extensive  scale.  In  this  way 
it  is  possible  to  oversee  all  this  work,  and  by  comparison  with  requisi- 
tions for  purchase  of  new  tools,  determine  just  what  tools  to  purchase 
and  what  to  make  in  the  shops.  With  this  would  be  included  the  check- 
ing over  of  all  store  orders  for  new  tools,  and  also  the  gathering  of  data 
of  costs  of  making  various  tools  in  the  shops,  and  the  corresponding 
manufacturers'  prices. 

V.    ERECTING-SHOP  ECONOMIES. 

High-speed  steels  and  re-designed  machine  tools  have  worked  great 
improvements  in  machine-shop  production.  Have  all  the  other  de- 
partments been  improved  to  keep  pace  with  the  machine  shop?  The 
blacksmith  shop  with  its  Bradley  hammers,  bolt-headers  and  bull- 
dozers, and  accompanying  oil  furnaces,  has  made  rapid  strides;  and 
the  boiler  shop  with  its  hydraulic  forming  press  and  riveter,  gasoline 
p  and  oil  heaters,  and  annealing  furnace,  together  with  all 

Conditions  in  the  pneumatic  tools,  is  well  in  line ;  but  how  about 
Erecting  Shop.  the  erecting  shop?  Here  we  find  little  or  nothing  has 
been  or  is  being  done.  True,  there  is  now  and  .then  a  cylinder  boring 


156  Betterment  Briefs. 

bar  or  probably  a  rotary  planer  for  valve  seats,  and  perhaps  a  few 
antiquated  air  motors;  but  close  scrutiny  reveals  the  fact  that 
the  tools  in  the  erecting  shop  are  sadly  in  need  of  attention,  for 
the  reason,  perhaps,  that  it  has  never  been  thought  necessary  to 
give  to  the  men  those  individual  tools  which  diminish  the  manual  labor 
and  consequently  decrease  the  number  of  hours  and  the  cost  of  produc- 
tion. 

One  great  hindrance  in  erecting  shops  is  a  lack  of  standards.  An 
instance  is  that  of  ball-joints  on  dry  and  steam  pipes.  With  a  standard 
radius  for  these  joints,  and  forns  to  suit,  all  steam-pipe  and  dry-pipe 
joints  could  be  finished  without  the  annoying  delay  of  making  a  sheet- 
iron  template  for  each  joint,  and  steam-pipe  rings  could 
StandarY  Ball-  be  kept  in  stock  with  the  ball-joint  finished,  requiring 
Joint  Ecam-  only  a  few  minutes'  work  to  cut  it  off  for  height  when 
one  is  wanted.  The  laborious  job  of  grinding  a  dry 
pipe  into  the  flue  sheet  could  be  eliminated  by  the  use  of  forms, 
and  the  time  reduced  from  eight  or  ten  hours  to  one  and  one-half  or 
two.1  The  same  is  partially  true  of  the  standpipe  and  throttle  joints: 
by  having  all  joints  of  standard  radius,  an  interchange  of  parts  would 
be  effected  in  a  short  time  in  many  cases,  avoiding  serious  delays  in 
engines  leaving  the  shop. 

Standard  Washout  plugs  form   another  case  where  a  standard 

Washout  taper  is  indispensable,  as  by  bringing  all  plugs  to  that 

plu&8-  standard,  interchangeability  and  greater  safety  as  regards 

the  danger  of  blowing  out  are  secured. 

A  standard  taper  for  all  engine  bolts  could  be  easily  arranged,  and 
by  maintaining  it  a  great  saving  of  labor  could  be  effected.  With  all 
reamers  of  standard  taper,  bolts  could  be  turned  and  fitted  to  blocks  at 
the  lathe  and  kept  in  stock  finished.  The  erecting  men  would  then  be 
enabled  to  have  a  bolt  on  hand  when  they  are  reaming  holes,  obviating 
the  necessity  for  the  machine  men  to  go  into  the  erecting  shop  to  caliper 
Standard  ^e  hole,  and  to  return  again  to  put  the  bolt  into  the 

Taper  for  hole  and  file  it  if  necessary.  The  size  and  length  of 
Engine  Bolts.  ajj  boiler  studs  could  be  taken  and  a  number  given 
to  each  size,  and  they  could  be  kept  in  stock  and  handled  as  easily 
as  spring  cotters.  It  would  first  be  necessary  to  check  over  all  the 
boiler  taps  and  have  them  conform  to  a  given  standard.  The  same 
standardizing  could  be  carried  out  in  all  cab  brass  work  and  boiler 
mountings,  cylinder  cocks,  boiler  checks,  and  relief  valves,  so  that  all 

1See  pp.  89,  90  for  illustrations  of  standard  ball-joint  reamers. 


Erecting-Sh op  Economies. 


157 


FIG.  100 — SLING  DEVISED  FOR  THE  QUICK  AND  SAFE  PICKING  UP  AND  CAR- 
RYING   OF    DRIVING-BOXES    BY    CRANE    FROM    ONE    PART    OF    A    SHOP    TO    ANOTHER. 

THESE  BOXES  DO  NOT  REQUIRE  A  SKILLED  MAN  TO  ADJUST  A  ROPE  SLING  FOR  THE 
SAFE  CARRIAGE  FOR  EACH  INDIVIDUAL  BOX,  AND  THEY  WILL  NOT  DROP  ON  THE 
HEADS  OF  UNSUSPECTING  WORKMEN  AS  THEY  PASS  BY.  THE  BOXES  ADJUST  THEM- 
SELVES IN  A  NEAT  PILE  ON  BEING  LOWERED  TO  THE  FLOOR,  AND  THE  SLING  IS 
DISENGAGED  INSTANTLY.  DEVISED  BY  AN  AGGRESSIVE  AND  INTERESTED  MACHINE 
SHOP  FOREMAN. 


158 


Betterment  Briefs. 


•  "1* 


FIG.  101 — MOTION  PICTURES  TAKEN  OF  RAILROAD  AND  SHOP  OPERATIONS  FOR  THE  INSTRIH 
TION  AND  ENTERTAINMENT  OF  THE  MEN,  IN  SERIES  OF  FREE  LECTURES  GIVEN,  DESCRIBING  MODER 
SHOP  METHODS,  AND  ILLUSTRATING  THE  ADVANTAGES  TO  THE  MEN  OF  THE  INTENSIVE  OUTPU 
LABOR  REWARD,  IN  ORDER  TO  ENLIST  THEIR  INTEREST  AND  COOPERATION  IN  THE  PROMOTION  O 
THESE  EFFICIENT  METHODS. 


Erecting -Shop  Economies.  159 

joints  would  be  of  the  same  radius,  and  valves  of  the  same  size  could  be 
interchanged. 

Anyone  with  knowledge  of  work  in  the  erecting  shop  can  readily 
see  how  much  it  would  be  of  advantage  if  all  spring  rigging  and  driver- 
brake  pins  were  standardized,  numbered,  and  kept  in  stock.  Why 
should  a  machinist  earning  33  cents  per  hour  be  allowed  to  spend  from 

,  ,  twelve  to  fifteen  hours  truing  up  the  journals  on  a 

Brake  Rigging  tumbling-shaft,  when  a  machine  can  be  made  to  do  the 
1>ins<  work  far  better  in  one  and  one-half  hours?  Or  why 

should  a  man  be  compelled  to  ream  holes  by  hand  in  close  quarters 
where  an  air  motor  could  not  be  used  directly  when  a  geared  device 
could  be  made  to  permit  the  use  of  a  motor? 

A  few  devices  which  aid  erecting  work  are:  A  bar  and  mandrel  for 
hanging  guides  instead  of  the  old  method  of  using  a  line;  a  hydraulic 
piston  extractor;  an  air  gun  or  a  cannon  for  stubborn  frame  bolts  in 
place  of  a  sledge  and  a  lot  of  muscle ;  a  suitable  air  motor  for  a  valve- 
S  ecial  setting  machine.  Why  have  four  men  pull  in  a  cylinder 

Erecting  bushing  with  a  big  wrench  when  one  man  can  do  it  with 

Work  Devices.  an  ajr  mo^or  anj  the  gear  of  a  boring-bar?  Again,  if  a 
pneumatic  hammer  is  essential  to  a  boiler-maker  chipping  and  caulk- 
ing a  seam,  why  is  it  not  as  essential  to  a  machinist  when  chipping 
a  cylinder  saddle  or  filleting  a  frame  for  shoes  and  wedges? 

Another  need  is  for  a  more  careful  watch  over  air  tools  to  see  that 
they  are  economical  as  to  the  use  of  air  or  are  discarded  when  unfit 
for  use.  In  the  condition  in  which  they  are  kept  there  are  many  oc- 
casions where  it  is  more  economical  to  drill  by  hand  than 
Air  Tools.  to  use  the  air  motors.  A  sufficient  quantity  of  air  drills 
and  hammers  is  the  first  requisite  of  an  erecting  shop, 
and  it  is  important  that  they  be  kept  in  the  best  working  condition.1 

Another  feature  is  an  equipment  of  hand  tools.  I  have  seen  a  ma- 
chinist spend  forty-five  minutes  tapping  a  hole  in  a  boiler  sheet  with  a 
worn-out  tap  when  it  could  be  done  in  five  minutes  with  a  good  tap,  and 
I  have  seen  reamers  ruined  by  having  the  wrench  not  fit  properly  and 

Importance  turn  ^ne  corners  °f  the  square  end.  I  have  seen,  too, 
of  Good  seven  hours  spent  in  drilling  out  a  bolt  when  two  would 

To°  St  have  sufficed  with  a  proper  equipment  of  twist  drills  and 

sockets,  and  four  hours  spent  reaming  a  hole  where  one-fourth   the 
time  was  spent  waiting  for  another  man  to  get  through  with  a  reamer. 
Following  are  some  devices  needed  in  erecting  shops:    Stand  for 

1  See  article,  "Pneumatic  Power  in  the  Machine  Shop,"  by  R.Emerson,  Engineering  Maga- 
zine, February,  1906. 


160  Betterment  Briefs. 

setting  stack  saddle  from  nozzle  base;    device  for  quartering  wheels; 

air  device  for  use  when  reaming  holes  vertically;   num- 

Neede^in          bered  templates  for  blacksmith  and  erecting  shops,  for 

Erecting  equalizers    and    driver  brake  hangers;    jigs  for  drilling 

piston    glands,    back    cylinder    heads,  steam  chests  and 

glands,    cylinder   frames,   etc.,    to   afford   interchangeability ;  jigs  for 

compound  crossheads  to  allow  guides  to  be  hung  standard. 

MISCELLANEOUS  ECONOMIES. — We  have  followed  through  the  con- 
ception of  standardized  engine  parts  and  its  practical  application  in 
manufacturing  methods  in  shops,  together  with  the  methods  of  han- 
Methods  for  dling  the  sn°P  work  as  effected  with  the  plan  of  stand- 
Standardizing  ardized  repairs.  There  are  numerous  minor  advantages 
Repairs.  ^at  mav  j^  summarized  here,  incidental  to  a  thorough 

working  out  of  good  system.  We  might  thus  enumerate  the  branches 
to  which  intelligent  study  of  conditions  and  application  of  systems 
should  be  applied: 

1.  The  routing  of  work  through  the  shops. 

2.  The  handling  of  shop  orders. 

3.  The  making,  providing,  and  using  of  standard  blue-prints. 

4.  The  establishment  of  shop  sub-stores. 

5.  The  standardization  of  air-tool  equipment. 

6.  The  supervision  by  a  single  expert  of  power  plants  and  appur- 
tenances, steam,  electric,  air. 

7.  The  classification  under  individual  foremen  and  by  whole  shops 
of  the  pay-roll,  with  an  analysis  of  the  same. 

8.  The  introduction  of  a  system  of  reward  according  to  individual 
effort. 

9.  The  offering  of  bonuses  for  saving  material. 

10.  The  proper  consideration  of  overcharges,   or  "surcharges,"   in 
comparing  shop  costs  with  manufacturers'  prices. 

Let  us  take  up  further  examination  of  these  points  seriatim : 
1.  There  is  often  great  confusion  and  unnecessary  delay  in  handling 
any  particular  job,  or  series  of  jobs,  through  the  different  departments 
of  a  shop,  or  even  in  one  department,  and  there  is  a  general  lack  of  sys- 
tem in  placing  the  work  in  order  of  its  importance.  Two  very  simple 
methods  of  handling  and  routing  work  are:  First,  to 
have  a  board  subdivided  according  to  the  shops  and 
Through  the  individual  machines,  gangs,  smith  fires,  benches,  or 

men,   in  the  various    departments,    with   tags   or    pegs 
representing  a    particular  part  having  work  done  on  it.     From  this 


Erecting-Shop  Economies.  161 

board  a  daily  sheet  may  be  drawn  showing  the  progress  each  day  through 
each  department,  and  as  the  work  on  each  locomotive  or  shop  order  is 
scheduled  according  to  the  requirements  of  the  operating  department 
or  the  store  department,  the  detail  elements  of  the  whole  job  in  each 
case  can  be  provided  for  like  the  operation  of  a  regular  train  schedule 
or  time  table.  Second,  the  articles  themselves  may  be  provided  with 
tags  indicating  whence  and  whither,  with  days  and  hours  for  delivery 
to  and  by  each  department.  Red  or  green  tags  might  indicate  rush 
jobs;  but  these  tags  should  be  under  the  hand  of  the  superintendent 
of  shops  and  doled  out  by  him  for  rush  jobs  only.1 

2.  As  the  shopping  of  engines  is  dependent  on  the  requirements  of 
the  operating  department  and  traffic,  so  the  urgency  and  amount  of 
shop-order  manufacturing  depends  on  the  requirements  of  the  store 
department,  in  so  far  as  that  department  foresees  coming  demands  or 

has  to  fill  requisitions  from  outlying  points.  The  men  in 
Sho^Orders  cnarge  of  shop-order  work  at  the  central  shops  should 

therefore  act  in  thorough  accord  with  the  store  depart- 
ment, studying  its  needs,  fulfilling  its  requirements  systematically  and 
promptly.  The  store  department,  on  the  other  hand,  should 
furnish  its  information  in  specific  form,  and  should  insist  on  the 
requisitions  bearing  all  the  necessary  information  before  they  leave 
the  division  storekeeper's  hands.  Shop  orders,  or  store-order  work, 
should  be  confined  to  the  central  shops  and  practically  none  be 
permitted  at  any  outlying  point,  even  though  in  some  instances  such 
manufacture  might  be  done  just  as  cheaply  at  the  small  shops  as  cen- 
trally. The  reason  for  this  is  that  there  is  apt  to  be  a  lack  of  uniformity 
of  standards. 

3.  At  the  time  when  a  railroad  decides  to  standardize  its  engines  it 
will  also  be  well  for  it  to  systematize  its  mechanical  engineer's  office 
thoroughly.     The  tracings  should  be  reduced  to  a  few  standard  sizes, 
three  or  four  sized  in  the  relation  of  multiples  being  sufficient.     As  it  is 
usual  to  have  margins  and  a  regular  form  of  title  for  these  tracings,  it 

will  be  advantageous  to  have  the  tracing-cloth  cut 
Drawings  UP  m^°  trimmed  sheets  and  printed  with  the  marginal 
and  e  lines  and  such  other  indications  as  appear  on  each 

and  every  drawing.  This  will  save  the  draughtsman's 
time  in  unrolling  and  cutting  off  the  tracing-cloth,  will  save  waste 
in  cloth  itself  if  the  standard  sizes  are  made  with  reference  to  commercial 


JSee  article,  "Dispatching  Board  for  Engine  Repairs,"  by  C.  J.   Morrison, 
Engineer  and  Railroad  Journal,  April,  1907. 


in  American 


162  Betterment  Briefs. 

width  of  drawing-cloth,  and  the  printing  will  be  found  to  be  cheaper 
than  the  old  hand  method.  On  these  tracing-sheets  drawings  of  all 
standard  parts  will  be  made,  and  blueprints  sent  to  the  various  shops, 
properly  receipted  for.  These  blueprints  should  preferably  be  mounted 
on  a  heavy  pasteboard  and  shellacked  over,  and  a  standard  blueprint 
rack  supplied  each  shop  in  which  to  keep  them,  so  that  the  drawing  of 
any  part  may  be  quickly  located.  When  this  system  of  standard 
blueprints  is  first  put  into  practice,  one  man  should  go  from  shop  to 
shop  seeing  that  it  is  properly  installed,  and  that  the  blueprints  are  used 
by  the  men  on  the  work  and  the  work  done  in  accordance  with  them. 
Thereafter,  perhaps  once  a  month,  some  one  from  the  mechanical  en- 
gineer's office  should  make  a  tour  of  the  road  both  for  inspection  and 
to  ascertain  the  local  shop  needs. 

4.  These  sub-stores  save  a  good  deal  of  time  and  bother.     The  ma- 
terial in  them  should  be  drawn  on  requisitions  in  just  the  same  manner 
as  from  the  general  storehouse,  and  the  requisitions  turned  over  at  the 
Material  Sub-    enc^   °^   ^e   day   to  the   regular  storekeeper.     The  fore- 
Stores  in  man  of  the  shop  or  department,  or  his  clerk,  will   have 
SnoP8<  charge  of  the  sub-store,  and   an    inventory  should  be 
taken  at  least  once  each  week  so  as  to  keep  the  accounts  for  material 
straight.     I  should  advocate  such  sub-stores  for  small  and  frequently 
used  material  only.     The  articles  kept  by  these  sub-stores  should  of 
course  be  carried  in  the  stock  account  of  the  regular  stores  depart- 
ment. 

5.  The  standardization  of  air-tool  equipment  has  been  covered  in 
a  series  of  tw,o  articles  by  Mr.  R.  Emerson,  in  the  December,  1904,  and 
February,  1905,  issues  of  the  Engineering  Magazine.     As  explained  in 
these  articles,  three  or  four  types  of  air  motors  and  air  hammers  are 

selected    as    standard,   and    such    extra    parts  as  may 
Standardiza-       ,  -,  . 

tion  of  Air         •*  required  are  either  purchased  from  the  manufacturer 

Tool  or  made  and  kept   in  the  central  manufacturing  tool- 

Equipment.  .  ...          .  ,     r    ,,. 

room.     Any  expensive  air-tool  repairs  are  made  in  this 

central  tool-room,  the  motors  or  hammers  being  shipped  in  by  express, 
duplicates  having  been  sent  out  to  the  local  shops  to  take  their  place 
immediately  on  notice  of  their  being  out  of  commission.  In  this  way 
the  small  outlying  points  will  always  have  a  sufficiency  of  air-tool  equip- 
ment in  good  order,  and  the  repairs  of  this  class  of  tools,  on  which  the  de- 
preciation is  very  high,  owing  to  the  extremely  hard  service  to  which  they 
are  of  necessity  almost  always  subjected,  will  be  reduced  to  a  low  figure. 
In  order  to  have  pneumatic  tools  operate  in  a  satisfactory  manner,, 


Av.  Cost 
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15.00 
14.00 

13.00 

12.00 

Av.  No. 
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1,700 
1,600 

1,500 

1,400 

LJ 

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19,000 
18,000 

17,000 
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Average  Total  < 
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DIAGRAM  SHOWING  EFFICIENCIES  OF  FREIGHT  CAR  REPAIR  TRACK  BEFORE  AND 
AFTER  THE  INTRODUCTION  OF  THE  INDIVIDUAL  EFFORT  SYSTEM.  THE  ENTHUSIASTIC 
COOPERATION  OF  THE  CAR-FOREMEN  WAS  LARGELY  RESPONSIBLE  FOR  THE  HIGH 
EFFICIENCY  OBTAINED  AFTER  THE  ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  INDIVIDUAL  EFFORT 

SYSTEM,  163 


164 


Betterment  Briefs. 

TON  MILES  PER  ENGINE  FAILURE. 

Comparison   of  Calendar   Years    1905   and    1906. 


1543  Engines  in  Sen-ice 


1695  Engines  in  Service 


FROM  THE  ABOVE  GRAPH  YOU  WILL  NOTE  THAT  IN  1905  THERE  WERE  1592 
1000-TON  MILES  HAULED  PER  ENGINE  FAILURE,  AND  IN  1906  THERE  WERE  1732 
1000-TON  MILES  HAULED  PER  ENGINE  FAILURE. 

It  may  sometimes  be  urged  that  attention  to  efficiency  in  the  maintenance  of  motive 
power  will  result  in  a  greatly  deteriorating  condition  of  that  power,  with  consequent  loss  of 
efficiency  and  an  increase  in  failures  of  such  power  on  the  road.  In  order  to  ascertain 
whether  such  has  been  the  case,  the  relation  of  eneine  failures  to  the  volume  of  business 
handled  (i.e.,  gross  ton  mileage)  has  been  ascertained  and  is  plotted  above.  The  tendency 
for  improvement  in  this  direction  simultaneously  with  the  elimination  of  waste  in  material 
and  labor  applied  to  engines  is  marked,  and  effectually  offsets  any  argument  that  might  be 
advanced  to  the  contrary. 

This  improvement  is  not  merely  a  temporary  one,  but  it  is  likely  to  grow  increasingly 
favorable  owing  to  the  method  now  being  introduced,  since  the  efficiency  plan  has  been  gen- 
erally extended  to  all  shops  and  roundhouses,  of  rewarding  foremen  for  quality  of  output 
besides  the  efficiency  of  their  men,  and  placing  inspectors  at  each  of  the  principal  points, 
whose  reward  will  depend  upon  the  number  and  character  of  defects  found. 


Erecting-Shop  Economies.  165 

a  sufficient  supply  of  dry  air  must  be  maintained  at  proper  pressure, 
and  to  do  this  considerable  care  is  required  in  locating  the  intakes  of 
the  air  compressor,  in  operating  the  compressor,  and  in  looking  after 
Maintenance  ^ie  non"leakage  of  the  pipes  and  the  cooling  of  the  air  be- 
of  Air  and  fore  it  reaches  the  machines,  with  provision  for  tapping 
Electric  Tools.  any  entrained  moisture.  Similarly  the  electric  lines,  gen- 
erators and  motors  need  to  be  kept  up.  There  is  no  more  elusive  yet 
real  waste  of  power  than  occurs  in  a  steam  line,  and  these  should  be 
very  thoroughly  and  frequently  inspected  in  order  to  maintain  them 
in  efficient  condition.  Fuel  economies  in  the  boiler  plant  are  likewise 
of  importance  and  should  receive  a  broad,  comprehensive  study. 

7.  It  is  a  very  easy  matter  when  once  the  pay-roll  of  any  given 
shop  or  division  of  a  railroad  is  classified  according  to  service  rendered, 
to  check  up  this  pay-roll  daily  according  to  the  men  who  have  worked, 

„.  .fl  .  and  determine  just  how  much  each  portion  of  the  work  is 
Classification  J 

of  Work  on  costing.  If  this  is  done,  actually  but  the  work  of  a  few 
Pay  Rolls.  minutes  each  day,  it  will  be  readily  shown  where  it  will 
pay  to  concentrate  one's  efforts  in  reducing  this  kind  of  expense,  and 
a  careful  study  of  the  conditions  of  the  group  that  promises  the  largest 
reduction  will  reveal  how  such  reduction  can  be  effected.  Under  this 
kind  of  system,  a  reduction  in  shop  operation  expense  of  from  20  to 
40  per  cent  can  very  easily  be  made  within  six  months,  at  a  cost  of  less 
than  10  per  cent  of  the  reduction  itself.  This  kind  of  analysis  applied  to 
a  $5,000,000  a  year  pay-roll  for  locomotive  repairs  will  net  a  very  hand- 
some saving. 

8.^  We  shall  touch  a  little  later  upon  the  subject  of  reward  for  in- 
dividual effort,  but  it  should  be  stated  that  whereas  an  expense  reduction 
R  .  ,  of  20  per  cent  or  over  can  be  attained  by  intelligent  anal- 

Individual  ysis  and  supervision  without  reduction  in  the  output,  an 
Effort.  increased  output  with  a  simultaneous  reduction  in  ex- 

pense can  be  attained  only  by  interesting  the  men  financially  in  coop- 
erating to  this  end. 

Reward  f  r  ^'  Similarly  ^  ^s  verv  difficult  to  attain  any  tangible 

Saving  results  in  the  way  of  economical  use  of  materials  without 

Material.  offering  some  substantial  form  of  reward  for  such  care. 

10.  Under  "surcharge"  I  would  refer  to  an  article  by  Mr.  C.  J. 
Surcharge  on  M°mson>  in  the  October  1906  issue  of  the  American 
Shop  Engineer  and  Railroad  Journal,  and  also  the  editor's  corn- 

Production,  ment  in  the  same  issue.  Mr.  Morrison  explains  the  sur- 
charge problem  in  detail,  and  gives  the  following  list  of  the  items 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 


166  Betterment  Briefs. 

making    up    the    surcharge   account   in   a    modern    railway    repair 
shop: 

1.  Rent: 

A.  Depreciation  of  buildings,  4  per  cent  per  annum. 

B.  Interest  on  buildings,  4  per  cent  per  annum. 

C.  Interest  on  land,  4  per  cent  per  annum. 

D.  Repairs  to  buildings,  material  and  labor. 

E.  Insurance. 

F.  Taxes. 

2.  Supervisory  and  Miscellaneous: 

A.  Superintendence  and  office. 

B.  Accounting. 

C.  Drawing  room. 

D.  Spoiled  work. 

E.  Laborers  and  watchmen. 

3.  Machinery : 

A.  Depreciation  per  annum,  4  per  cent. 

B.  Interest  per  annum,  4  per  cent. 

C.  Repairs  (labor). 

D.  Repairs  (material). 

E.  Replacing  small  tools. 

F.  High-speed  and  other  steels. 

G.  Supplies. 

4.  Power,  Heat,  Light,  Water,  etc.: 

A.  Depreciation  per  annum,  4  per  cent       \   /-%     u,,*i^'  «. 

B.  Interest  per  annum,  4  per  cent  /   ^  buudinSs- 

C.  Depreciation  per  annum,  10  per  cent     1    o    mar>hinprv 

D.  Interest  per  annum,  4  per  cent  /   Un  macninel> 

E.  Wages. 

F.  Fuel. 

G.  Repairs. 
H.  Supplies. 

I.    Lamps,  coal  delivery,  etc. 

These  items,  expressed  as  a  percentage  of  the  pay-roll,  are  found  to 
average  for  a  number  of  shops  as  follows: 

Locomotive                 Car  TW/T/ 

Department.  Department.  * UIUI" 

Rent 11.5                   8.1  10 

Supervision  and  miscellaneous 13 . 8                 12.0  13 

Machinery 26.6                 14.4  21 

Power 8.1                   3.5  6 

It  is  common  practice  for  railways  in  figuring  costs  of  their  manu- 
factured products  to  consider  only  the  cost  of  rough  material  and  the 
actual  cost  of  labor,  adding  from  10  to  15  per  cent  for  supervision. 
When  costs  are  figured  in  this  way  the  prices  obtained  are  low  as  com- 
pared with  prices  submitted  by  manufacturers,  and  railroad  officials 
congratulate  themselves  upon  a  cheap  output,  while  in  reality  if  proper 
surcharges  were  considered  they  would  be  surprised  at  the  reasonable- 
ness of  some  manufacturers'  prices. 

INDIVIDUAL  EFFORT  REWARDED. — After,  and  only  after,  a  very 
clear  idea  of  the  manner  in  which  shop  betterment  is  going  to  be 


Erecting-Shop  Economies.  167 

carried  on  has  been  formed,  and  largely  put  into  effect,  should 
any  tampering  with  the  wage  system  of  the  men  take  place.  The 
day  or  hour  rate  is  objectionable  because  the  man  is  paid  for  time, 
and  not  for  output;  therefore  he  seeks  to  put  in  as  much  time  as 
possible  with  little  respect  to  rendering  a  valuable  equivalent  for 
his  wages,  and  the  time  he  puts  in  is  preferably  over-time  and  over- 
pay. The  straight  piece-work  system  has  been  devised  to  overcome 
this,  but  has  probably  been  the  cause  of  greater  dissatisfaction  between 

employer  and  employee  than  even  the  inefficient  day- 
of  Individual  ra^e  system.  Some  form  of  premium  or  bonus  not  inter- 
Effort  fering  with  the  man's  regular  daily  wages  should  be 

devised,  in  order  to  have  a  smooth  and  satisfactory  basis 
for  all  concerned.  Moreover,  the  premium  or  bonus  should  not  be 
for  a  certain  piece  of  standard  operation,  but  the  individual  reward 
should  be  determined  for  each  individual  set  of  conditions.  For  in- 
stance, for  two  men  running  two  lathes  side  by  side  and  each  of  them 
turning  out  the  same  piece  of  work,  the  time  or  extra  money  allowed 
to  each  man  for  the  performance  of  this  work  should  be  governed  by 
the  conditions  and  capacities  of  each  of  the  machines  and  by  the 
rates  of  pay  (presumably  a  measure  of  the  efficiency)  of  each  man. 
This,  in  brief,  is  the  spirit  of  the  system  of  rewarding  labor  according  to 
individual  effort;  it  is  a  system  based  upon  close  analysis  of  the  de- 
mands, unit  operations,  and  other  conditions  governing  the  performance 
of  each  piece  of  work,  and  it  differs  from  the  usual  piece  work  or  premium 
method  in  that  guessing  is  eliminated,  and  actual  observation  by  prac- 
tical men,  checked  up  by  some  one  expert  in  figures,  is  substituted.1 
Benefits  of  The  §eneral  policy  of  the  thorough  carrying  out  of 

Progressive  such  a  system  of  motive-power  and  shop  betterment  and 
Policy.  systematization  similar  to  that  outlined  in  these  papers, 

will  have  three  real  and  great  benefits : 

Maintenance  First,  that  part  of  the  operating  expense  known  as 

Expense  repairs  and  renewals  to  locomotives  and  machinery  will 

Reduced.  j^  verv  materially  reduced,  thus  increasing  the  net  earn- 

ings on  the  road. 

Improved  Second,  the  motive  power  will  be  kept  up  in  better 

Conditions  of     condition  and  kept  out  of  earning  service  a  shorter  length 
ocomotives.     Qf  ^me^  thus  increasing  the  gross  earnings  and  postponing 
the  necessity  for  investment  in  additional  power. 

1  See  article,  "Efficiency  of  the  Worker  and  His  Rate  of  Pay,"  by  C.  Hastings,   in  American 
Engineer  and  Railroad  Journal,  June,  1907. 


168  Betterment  Briefs. 

Third,  the  shop  output  will  develop  a  capability  of  considerable  in- 
crease, taking  care  of  in  a  large  way  and  curtailing  what  would  in  the 
sh  normal  course  of  events  be  future  shop  extensions.  These 

Output  extensions  for  the  most  part  would  not  be  necessary ; 

Increased.  ^jlus  additional  capital  investment  will  be  postponed. 
Furthermore,  it  will  finally  become  practicable  for  the  road  to  build 
locomotives  in  its  central  shops  at  a  low  figure. 

These  results  can  be  guaranteed,  provided  the  betterment  system 
is  thoroughly  carried  out ;  they  can  be  guaranteed  because  they  repre- 
sent what  has  been  done  wholly  or  in  part  on  roads  in  our  experience. 

EDUCATION  AND  PUBLICITY. — While  machines  and  methods  are  the 
solid  framework  of  production,  unless  the  cooperation,  interest  and  en- 
thusiasm of  the  men  can  be  obtained,  the  system  is  apt  to  be  lifeless. 
So  it  may  be  said  that  an  ability  to  get  close  to  the  men — to  gain  and 
hold  their  confidence — is  even  more  important  than  method. 

To  gain  the  confidence  of  the  man  (not  so  easy  in  the  constant 
strife  and  misunderstanding  of  the  labor  unions  today),  the  intro- 
ducer of  these  methods,  or  his  representative  in  the  shop,  should  be  a 
Necessity  for  practical  and  well-schooled  mechanic  himself,  versed  in 
Confidence  the  failings  and  ideas  of  the  men  of  whom  he  has  recently 
been  one,  and  of  a  personality  commanding,  yet  carrying 
with  it  an  enthusiasm  that  is  contagious.  The  role  of  such  a  man  is 
to  get  the  drift  of  the  attitude  of  the  individuals  in  the  shop,  to  be  able 
to  recognize  the  leading  spirits,  and  to  enlist  their  active  assistance  in 
the  work.  This  is  the  more  requisite  if  any  system  of  piece  work  or 
reward  according  to  individual  effort  is  being  introduced  along  with 
the  improved  methods. 

In  dealing  with  the  men,  complete  frankness  is  necessary.  The 
men  must  understand  that  the  methods  and  objects  are  not  mysterious, 
nor  designed  for  their  detriment.  Their  reward  should  be  commen- 
Open  and  surate  to  the  hope  held  out  to  them,  and  the  leading 
Direct  Meth-  men  especially  should  be  shown  consideration  in  the  way 
8  88en  a '  of  certain  favors,  such  as  being  permitted  to  work  on  a 
particular  machine,  which  is  valued  by  them  more  highly  than  cold 
cash  alone. 

To  dispel  the  feeling  usually  prevalent,  that  the  methods  are  mys- 
terious and  ultimately  injurious  to  their  interests,  it  is  well  in  making 
an  improvement  of  any  machine  to  point  out  to  the  operator  just  what 
needs  are  in  view,  just  what  time  economies  are  expected,  and  it  should 
be  set  before  his  reason  that  it  is  only  fair  the  company  should  enjov 


Erecting -Shop  Economies.  169 

some  return  on  its  investment  which  makes  time  reductions  and  output 
increases  possible.  Over  against  this  picture  of  the  company's  interest, 
which  will  usually  appeal  to  the  fair-mindedness  of  a  man,  there  should 
be  set  a  statement  of  his  own  advantages  under  the  new  system. 

In  order  to  enlist  the  cooperation  of  the  higher  officials,  on  whose 
authority  alone  such  systems  can  be  introduced,  it  has  been  found  most 
Co-operation  advantageous  to  secure  accurate  time  records  under  the 
of  Higher  old  conditions,  and  under  the  new  ones  proposed,  with  a 
Secured  calculation  of  the  quantity  of  the  production  in  each 

case  and  the  monthly  or  annual  savings  which  may  be 
effected  under  the  changed  method. 

To  urge  all  of  the  men  and  to  enliven  a  universal  enthusiasm  and 
ready  will  among  them,  lantern-slide  views  covering  different  phases 
of  the  betterment  work,  accompanied  by  a  clear  and  not  too  technical 
address,  are  very  effective.  They  are  the  more  effective  if  the  plain 
Publicity  of  slides  from  well -taken  photographs  are  supplemented 
Methods  by  and  interspersed  with  moving  pictures  of  active  opera- 
tions in  the  shop.  We  illustrate  a  few  portions  of  films 
taken  with  this  end  in  view. 

The  first  shows  a  limited  train  of  the  road  rushing  out  of  the  picture. 
This  picture,  while  hackneyed  in  subject,  nevertheless  serves  to  inspire 
a  certain  patriotism  for  the  road. 

Next,  the  spectators  are  led  into  the  shop,  where  they  see  a  large 
overhead  electric  crane  in  the  impressive  act  of  lifting  a  locomotive  off 
her  wheels  and  placing  her  upon  the  blocks  in  the  erecting  shop.  It  may 
be  mentioned  that  the  total  time  consumed  in  performing  this  opera- 
tion was  two  minutes  and  forty-five  seconds. 

Next,  on  this  page,  one  of  the  expert  and  speedy  mechanics  in  the 
act  of  planing  a  large  locomotive  frame.  The  motion  is  realistic,  and 
the  man's  efforts,  making  every  move  count  to  advantage — to  the 
company's  advantage  in  time  reduction  and  to  his  advantage  in  in- 
creased daily  pay — are  very  effective.  Moreover,  the  publicity  given 
this  man  caused  him  to  swell  with  pride,  and  among  the  spectators  his 
friends  share  this  feeling,  and  the  others  look  forward  to  a  time  when 
they  also  may  appear. 

Another  series  would  illustrate  the  greater  effectiveness  of  pneu- 
matic riveting  hammers  than  of  the  old  perspiring  hand  methods. 
This  series  would  interest  whatever  boiler-makers  may  be  present.  In 
order  that  no  department  may  be  neglected,  it  is  well  to  have  illustra- 
tions also  of  blacksmith  work. 


170  Betterment  Briefs. 

It  may  be  stated  that  the  preparation  and  carrying  through  of  pho- 
tographic illustrations  of  methods  on  such  a  large  scale  is  an  expensive 
process,  running  far  up  into  the  hundreds  of  dollars.  But  this  in- 
vestment is  quite  cheap  when  it  is  considered  that  these  views  are  not 
only  shown  in  one  shop,  but  may  be  taken  from  shop  to  shop,  from  town 
to  town,  instilling  interest  into  shop  men,  engineers,  and  all  others 
whose  helpfulness  is  worth  anything.  Such  an  instrument  of  publicity 
and  frank  exposition  is  invaluable  in  averting  organized  dissension  and 
distrust  on  the  part  of  the  men.  Especially  is  this  true  when  there  is  a 
strike  on  the  road  and  the  men  filling  the  strikers'  places  are  under  un- 
certainty and  trepidation  as  to  their  treatment  by  the  company. 

The  treatment  of  the  human  elements  in  the  problem  of  railway 
machine-shop  management  is,  however,  large  enough  for  a  series  in 
itself,  and  quite  too  large  to  be  dismissed  in  a  few  paragraphs  conclud- 
ing a  review  which  has  followed  only  broad  outlines  in  the  administra- 
tive policies  and  mechanical  equipment  and  processes  of  the  shops. 
With  this  number,  the  discussion  must  be  closed  for  the  present.  I 
hope  even  in  this  limited  scope  it  has  sufficed  to  show  the  large  oppor- 
tunity open  for  the  betterment  of  railway  machine-shop  operation,  and 
the  efficacy  of  the  means  available  for  the  reduction  of  costs  and  the 
maintenance  of  the  operative  efficiency  of  the  motive  power  and  roll- 
ing stock. 

The  betterment  methods  detailed  in  these  papers  are  not  untried 
ideals  from  an  over-theoretical  mind ;  they  are  for  the  most  part  drawn 

from  the  practical  application  and  development  now  in 
Betterment  *  11  •      j     i  r  ^ 

Methods  process,  of  such  a  broadly  conceived  plan  on  one  of  the 

inCpracticeted    larSest  Western  railway  systems  of  the  United  States, 
and  from  them  great  additional  net  earnings  and  im- 
proved power  conditions  have  already  resulted. 

While,  however,  this  economy  and  increase  of  efficiency  has  been 
accomplished  through  the  agency  of  those  methods,  the  credit  for  the 
accomplishment  must  be  given,  as  always,  not  to  the  mere  methods 
themselves,  but  to  the  man  who  has  the  temerity  to  push  them  through 
the  inherent  impedence  of  practices  and  mentalities  rooted  firmly  by 
long  usage  and  establishment.  The  vice-president  in  charge  of  opera- 
tion of  this  railroad,  Mr.  J.  W.  Kendrick,  has  had  more  than  the  cour- 
age of  his  convictions ;  he  has  had  the  rare  quality  of  infusing  into  his 
men  an  enthusiastic  cooperation  unequaled  in  the  inauguration  of  a  new 
order  of  things. — H.  W.  JACOBS,  in  Engineering  Magazine,  September, 
October,  November,  December,  1906,  and  January,  1907. 


THE  RELATION    BETWEEN    THE    MECHANICAL    AND 
STORE  DEPARTMENTS. 


IN  this  age  of  specialization  we  find  the  store  and  mechanical  depart- 
ments of  a  railroad  handled  by  men  who  are  specialists  in  their 
line.     Their  duties  overlap  in  the  matter  of  mechanical  depart- 
ment supplies.     Unless  there  is  "team  work"  or  harmony  between 
them,  the  good  efforts  of  one  may  be  entirely  offset  by  the  shortcomings 
of  the  other. 

The  mechanical  department's  conception  of  an  ideal  store  depart- 
ment is  one  that  can  fill  immediately  each  and  every  requisition.  To 
do  this,  the  store  department  must  carry  a  complete  stock,  the  individ- 
The  Ideal  ua^  ^ems  °^  wmcn  are  obtained  either  in  the  market  or 
Store  from  the  shops  of  the  system,  and  to  accomplish  this  the 

Department.  store  department  must  make  use  of  its  previous  records, 
determining  how  much  and  what  stock  to  carry,  and  must  also  be 
informed  by  the  mechanical  department  concerning  future  demands, 
changes  in  engine  locations  and  changes  in  standards.  In  addition, 
the  mechanical  department  should  have  confidence : 

(1)  That  the  store  department  will  take  care  of  each  and  every  call 

for  material. 

(2)  That  requisitions  will  be  filled  promptly. 

(3)  That  requisitions  will  be  filled  correctly. 

This  is,  in  brief,  a  short  outline  of  my  idea  of  the  storehouse  problem 
from  the  mechanical  standpoint. 

The  stock  in  hand  is  the  matter  of  greatest  importance  in  every 
storehouse.  The  aim  should  be  to  have  a  small  live  stock  with  as  little 
money  as  possible  tied  up,  and  at  the  same  time  be  able  to  fill  requisi- 
tions as  presented.  The  store  department  might  come  up  to  all  require- 
ments from  the  mechanical  point  of  view  and  yet  be  most  inefficient  from 

the  standpoint  of  the  owners  of  the  road.     Too  much 
Maintenance  ,          ,        ,    .       ,  ,       <.  . 

of  Efficient        stock  on  hand   is  almost  as  much  of  a  waste  of  money 

andEconom-  as  not  enough,  not  enough  meaning  loss  of  money 
through  delays  to  engines  and  cars  on  the  repair  track 
waiting  for  material  to  be  bought  or  made,  and  too  much  meaning  loss 
of  interest  on  money  invested,  deterioration  in  value  on  perishable 
articles,  and  danger  of  much  becoming  obsolete  and  worthless  through 
change  of  standards. 

(171) 


172  Betterment  Briefs. 

An  example  of  how  too  much  stock  can  be  accumulated  is  the  old 
story  of  the  road  with  only  two  engines  of  a  certain  class  which  were 
moved  from  one  division  of  the  road  to  another,  until  these  two  engines 
had  been  over  the  entire  system.  After  they  had  been  on  the  road 
Example  some  two  years  and  had  been  overhauled  in  three  dif- 

Showing  ferent  places  the  president  called  for  a  statement  of 

Excessive  material  in  hand  for  these  engines.  There  were  found 

Stock.  on  hand  scattered  along  the  line  fourteen  sets  of  grates, 

nine  sets  of  cylinder  heads,  four  sets  of  pistons,  two  complete  sets  of 
rods,  besides  numerous  cylinder-head  casings,  valve  packings,  piston 
rings,  etc. ;  in  fact,  more  material  in  stock  than  these  two  engines 
would  use  in  ten  years. 

This  is  perhaps  an  unusual  case,  but  it  is  actual,  and  the  fault  was 
that  each  master  mechanic  was  trying  to  protect  these  two  engines 
while  they  were  on  his  division.  With  an  efficient  store  department 
none  of  this  material  would  have  been  in  the  hands  of  the  mechanical 
department,  but  instead  there  would  have  been  a  reasonable  amount 
in  the  hands  of  the  store  department,  who  would  have  moved  it  from 
division  to  division  as  the  engines  were  transferred. 

This  shows  the  difference  between  what  happens  when  an  efficient 
store  department  handles  this  problem  and  what  occurs  when  the  same 
thing  is  left  to  the  mechanical  department,  who  are  not  specialists  in 
this  particular  line. 

The  railroad  that  does  not  carry  a  full  stock  of  material  in  the  hands 
of  an  efficient  store  department  is  very  short-sighted.  I  find  that  if 
the  store  department  does  not  carry  the  necessary  amount  of  stock, 
EC  n  m  f  eac^  Sang  boss,  roundhouse  foreman,  shop  superintend- 
Complete  ent  and  master  mechanic  takes  it  upon  himself  to  run 
his  own  little  private  storehouse  for  his  needs  as  he  sees 
them.  This  means  an  innumerable  number  of  duplications,  no  records 
or  system,  and  much  time  wasted  hunting  for  material  supposed  to 
exist  but  which  either  never  did  exist  or  has  been  lost. 

This  material  is  collected  in  numerous  -rays.  The  most  common 
is  by  ordering  more  than  needed  when  making  requisitions  and  putting 
the  extra  pieces  in  the  private  stock.  The  only  excuse  for  this  system 
is  that  the  value  of  the  stock  on  hand  does  not  show  in  the  books  of  the 
company.  This  is  a  disastrous  policy,  for  the  stock  exists,  and  is  much 
more  in  quantity  than  would  be  needed  by  an  efficient  store  department. 
On  a  road  I  have  in  mind  this  private  stock  collected  by  self-appointed 
storekeepers  in  the  mechanical  department  contained  every  part  of  a 


FIG.  102 — STORAGE  PLATFORM  AND  RACKS  FOR  FINISHED  MATERIAL  AT  CEN- 
TRAL SHOPS,  AND  INTERIOR  OF  STOREROOM  ILLUSTRATING  THE  RESULTS  OF  CEN- 
TRALIZED PRODUCTION  OF  SUPPLIES  FOR  A  MODERN  RAILWAY  STORES  ROOM.  THESE 
PLATFORMS  AND  SHELVES  ARE  ARRANGED  SYSTEMATICALLY  AT  EACH  STOREHOUSE 
BY  GROUPS,  BEING  DESIGNATED  BY  CLASS  LETTERS,  WHICH  ARE  IDENTICAL  FOR 
EACH  STORE  ON  THE  RAILWAY  SYSTEM,  THUS  MAKING  IT  A  SIMPLE  MATTER  FOR 
ANYONE  FAMILIAR  WITH  THE  METHOD  TO  LOCATE  ANY  PARTICULAR  ITEM  OF  MA- 
TERIAL. '-  'THIS  SYSTEM  WAS  ORIGINATED  AND  PUT  INTO  PRACTICAL  PAYING  EFFECT 
BY  A  SUCCESSFUL  GENERAL  RAILWAY  STOREKEEPER  WHO  HAS  PROBABLY  DONE 
MORE  THAN  ANY  OTHER  MAN  IN  HIS  PROFESSION  IN  THE  COUNTRY,  TO  REDUCE 
RAILWAY  STOREKEEPING  TO  A  SCIENCE. 


•t 


The  Mechanical  and  Store  Departments.  175 

locomotive  from  a  piston  gland  to  a  boiler,  complete.  Such  a  state  of 
affairs  does  not  exist  today  on  this  road. 

An  efficient  store  department  can  reduce  the  quantity  of  stock  by 
taking  complete  charge  of  it,  keeping  complete  records  of  its  location, 
and  distributing  it  geographically  to  correspond  with  the  class  distribu- 
tion of  engines. 

The  mechanical  department  can  further  aid  the  store  department 
to  reduce  the  quantity  of  stock  required,  and  also  the  value  of  it,  by 
standardizing  all  material  to  the  greatest  possible  extent. 

Standardization  reduces  quantity.  As  an  example,  if  of  one  hun- 
dred classes  of  engines  the  main  rod  key  is  different  for  each  class,  the 
store  department  must  carry  at  least  three  hundred  keys  to  protect 
Reduction  in  every  engine ;  if,  however,  these  keys  were  standard- 
Number  of  ized  so  that  one  style  of  key  could  do  for  every  en- 
Standardiza-  gme>  then  a  stock  of  fifty  keys  would  be  ample  to  pro- 
tion-  tect  all  of  the  one  hundred  classes.  Standardization 

reduces  cost,  as  large  quantities  of  duplicate  pieces  are  ordered  at  one 
time  and  consequently  the  cost  of  manufacture  per  piece  can  be  ma- 
terially decreased. 

As  an  example  of  the  economy  of  manufacturing  standard  parts  in 
quantities  rather  than  in  separate  pieces  each  time,  the  tables  on  the 
following  pages  are  quoted,  showing  the  saving  in  labor  costs  in  material 
manufactured  in  central  shop. 

Every  railroad  man  today  has  reached  the  point  of  believing  in 
standardizing.  There  is  little  to  be  gained  in  making  standard  parts 
unless  these  parts  are  to  be  made  in  quantities  and  distributed  by  an 
efficient  store  system. 

Standardization  also  permits  of  going  into  the  open  market  for  stand- 
ard parts.  This  is  more  the  province  of  the  purchasing  rather  than  the 
store  department,  although  the  store  and  mechanical  departments  are 
both  concerned  in  the  value  of  their  material. 

In  bringing  up  the  matter  of  costs  we  find  many  different  systems 
of  determining  them.  The  value  of  material  bought  in  the  open  mar- 
ket is  easily  determined,  as  the  invoice  takes  care  of  that.  The  cost  of 
material  manufactured  on  the  road  as  listed  on  storehouse  books  is 
Manufactured  usua^y  l°w  compared  with  market  prices.  The  value  of 
Material  manufactured  material  is  commonly  figured  as  direct 

labor  cost  plus  material  cost,  and  I  find  some  roads 
adding  from  two  to  ten  per  cent  to  their  labor  to  cover  handling  and 
other  direct  expenses.  These  figures  are  ridiculously  low,  as  manufac- 


176 


Betterment  Briefs. 


ECONOMY    EFFECTED    BY   CONCENTRATION    OF    MANUFACTURE    OF    CERTAIN 
LOCOMOTIVE  PARTS  AT  CENTRAL  SHOP. 


ARTICLE. 

Total 
Number 
used  per 
month. 

Actual 
Labor   Cost 
at 

Average 
Labor   Cost 
at  Outside 
Points. 

Actual 
Labor 
Saving   per 
Month. 

Bull  Rings 

20 

$0  20 

$0  70 

$10  00 

Blower  Elbows 

50 

.38 

60 

11  00 

Crosshead  Pins 

40 

.26 

1  35 

43  go 

Cylinder  Heads  assorted  .... 

72 

1.55 

2  10 

39  60 

Crossheads  assorted  . 

30 

1.90 

4.10 

66  00 

Crank  Pin  Collars     

70 

.15 

.80 

45  50 

Crank  Pins                 .  . 

60 

.50 

1.75 

75  00 

Chafing  Irons 

60 

.30 

.75 

27  00 

Cylinders                                    .    .  . 

12 

14.40 

32.50 

217  20 

Driving  Boxes 

55 

1.45 

3.10 

90  75 

Drawbar  Carry  irons  

.02 

.28 

Driving  Box  Binders 

24 

.15 

.22 

1  68 

Eccentrics 

70 

1.05 

2.32 

158  90 

Eccentric  Straps 

44 

.90 

2.50 

70  40 

Engine  Bolts,  Centering,  Roughing  and 
Threadings               

13562 

.01 

.09 

1084  96 

Engine  Truck  Boxes  

16  " 

.24 

.68 

7  04 

Exhaust  Nozzles  

8 

.65 

1.22 

4  56 

Follower  Plates  

30 

.40 

15  60 

Grease  Cups 

825 

.08 

.92 

115  50 

Grease-Cup  Plugs  

2500 

.01 

.22 

15  00 

Knuckle  Pins.            .    .  . 

200 

.26 

.07 

318  00 

Niggerheads       

6 

.21 

1.85 

4  44 

Piston  Rods  

48 

1.65 

.95 

284  64 

Packing  Glands  

50 

.24 

7.58 

27  00 

Piston  Valves,  assorted  

15 

1.75 

.78 

93  75 

Piston  Valve  Bushing  

12 

3.33 

8.00 

77  64 

Packing  Rings  

600 

.08 

9.80 

384  00 

Piston  Heads  

48 

.95 

.72 

91  20 

Rocker  Boxes  

30 

1.11 

2.85 

62  70 

Steam  Chests  

10 

1.50 

3.20 

28  00 

Steam  Pipes  

20 

.65 

4.30 

11  00 

Shoes  and  Wedges  

450 

.07 

1.20 

337.50 

Slide  Valves,  assorted  

5 

1.95 

.82 

9.35 

Stack  Saddles  

6 

.38 

3.82 

2.04 

Safety-Chain  Hooks  

30 

.17 

.72 

9.90 

Switch-Chain  Hooks.  .  .  . 

40 

15 

.50 

10.00 

Sand  Pipes  

8 

.20 

.40 

2.56 

Spiders  

20 

.10 

52 

18.20 

Tumbling-Shaft  Boxes 

16 

17 

1  91 

4  96 

Wrenches,  Grease  Cup  

100 

.16 

48 

29.00 

Wrenches,  Car  Repairers'. 

1000 

025 

45 

175.00 

Lathe  and  Planer  Tools. 

400 

16 

20 

175.00 

Brake-Shoe  Keys  

2500 

001 

60 

122.50 

$4,513.67 

The  Mechanical  and  Store  Departments.  177 


TABLE   SHOWING    LOCOMOTIVE   PARTS  THAT  CAN   BE    MANUFACTURED    AT   A 
CENTRAL  SHOP  WITH  THE  PRESENT  FACILITIES. 


ARTICLE. 

Total  that 
could  be 
made  per 
Month. 

Time  on 
Each. 

Used  at 
per  Month. 

Surplus. 

Store- 
keeper's 
Require^ 
ments. 

Bull  Rings  

75 

1.4 

20 

55 

20 

Blower  Elbows  

60 

1  5 

50 

Crosshead  Pins  

40 

6 

14 

26 

40 

Cylinder  Heads,  assorted  
Crossheads  assorted  .  .  . 

50 
25 

4.0 
5  5 

15 

8 

35 

17 

72 

Crank  Pin  Collars  . 

225 

6 

25 

200 

30 

Crank  Pins 

50 

1  4 

10 

40 

60 

Chafing  Irons 

65 

1  4 

8 

57 

60 

Cylinders 

15 

45  0 

8 

7 

12 

Driving  Boxes  

80 

3.7 

10 

70 

55 

Drawbar  Carryirons  

2000 

Driving  Box  Binders  

25 

.4 

6 

18 

24 

Eccentrics  

100 

2.5 

15 

85 

70 

Eccentric  Straps  

100 

5.2 

15 

85 

44 

Eng.  Bits.,  Centering,  Rough- 
*  ing  and  Threading  

14000 

.05 

4000 

10000 

13562 

Engine  Truck  Boxes  

60 

.3 

8 

52 

16 

Exhaust  Nozzles 

12 

1  6 

4 

8 

8 

Follower  Plates  

75 

1.0 

20 

55 

30 

Grease  Cups  

1000 

.3 

150 

850 

825 

Grease-Cup  Plugs   .  .    .  . 

7500 

.05 

300 

7200 

2500 

Knuckle  Pins  

300 

.25 

60 

240 

200 

Niggerheads  

30 

.6 

Piston  Rods  

80 

4.1 

10 

70 

42 

Packing  Glands.  ... 

250 

.6 

50 

200 

50 

Piston  Valves,  assorted  

60 

4  5 

8 

52 

15 

Piston  Valve  Bushing  
Packing  Rings  .  . 

40 
1200 

8.0 
.3 

10 
200 

30 
1000 

12 
600 

Piston  Heads  .    . 

50 

2  6 

18 

32 

48 

Pilots  (new)  ... 

50 

Pilot  Bands  (new)  

50 

Rocker  Boxes  

8 

2.9 

8 

30 

Steam  Chests  

30 

4.0 

5 

25 

10 

Steam  Pipes  

75 

2.0 

8 

67 

20 

Shoes  and  Wedges  

450 

.6 

125 

305 

450 

Slide  Valves,  assorted  

10 

4.8 

3 

7 

5 

Stack  Saddles  

15 

1.0 

4 

11 

6 

Safety-Chain  Hooks 

100 

Switch-Chain  Hooks 

100 

Sand  Pipes  

10 

.5 

4 

6 

8 

Steam-Chest  Covers 

50 

9 

3 

47 

16 

Spiders   

45 

20 

15 

30 

20 

Tumbling-  Shaft  Box     .   . 

30 

4 

5 

25 

16 

Wrenches  Grease  Cup 

100 

Wrenches,  Car  Repairers'  

1000 

.  .     . 

178  Betterment  Briefs. 

turers  find  that  overhead  or  surcharge  expenses  are  often  two  and  three 
times  the  direct  labor. 

It  is  not  important  that  cost  be  figured  accurately  when  the  material 
is  only  passed  from  one  department  of  a  road  to  another  as  from  me- 
chanical to  store,  or  from  one  division  to  another.  It  is  in  this  case 
simply  taking  from  one  pocket  and  putting  in  another.  So  far  as  the 
railroad  is  concerned  as  a  whole,  there  would  be  no  loss  of  money  if 
no  charges  at  all  were  put  on  the  material  manufactured  in  their  own 
shop. 

One  department  can  give  to  the  other  and  there  is  no  decrease  in 
actual  cost  to  the  road. 

Unless  these  costs  are  figured  completely  and  accurately,  there  is 
no  use  in  taking  them  as  a  basis  of  value.  In  such  cases  I  would  ad- 
vise keeping  track  of  quantity  only  and  paying  no  regard  to  value. 

It  is  important  that  values  be  known  accurately  when  the  question 
arises  of  buying  or  making  certain  articles.  All  the  cost  of  rent,  super- 
vision, machinery,  power,  heat,  light,  etc.,  enters  into  the  cost  of  each 
Surcharge  repaired  engine  or  engine  part  delivered  from  the  loco- 
Item  motive  repair  shop.  Until  these  items  are  all  prorated 
over  the  cost  of  the  shop  output,  no  comparative  figures 
as  to  value  are  obtained. 

These  items  make  up  the  surcharge  problem,  and  are  just  as  real  a 
part  of  the  cost  as  the  material  or  the  labor  which  we  call  direct  and 
locate.  Direct  labor  and  unlocated  cost  each  enter  into  the  final  value 
of  an  article  just  as  much  as  power  to  move  a  balanced  compound  en- 
gine is  developed  in  both  the  high-pressure  cylinders  and  low-pressure 
cylinders.  The  high-pressure  cylinders  may  be  between  the  frame  and 
not  in  evidence  to  the  untrained  eye,  but  these  cylinders  must  be  con- 
sidered in  figuring  tractive  force  or  we  underestimate  it  in  about  the 
same  proportion  as  we  underestimate  costs  if  we  do  not  include  the 
surcharge,  which  is  no  more  evident  to  the  untrained  mind  than  the 
high-pressure  cylinders  of  a  balanced  compound  are  to  a  farmer. 

The  store  department  should  realize  that  the  mechanical  depart- 
ment will  not  order  a  thing  unless  they  need  it.  The  mechanical 
department  wants  what  it  orders  and  not  something  "just  as  good." 

Commercial  advertisements  are  full  of  cautions  to  beware  of  some- 
thing "just  as  good,"  and  mechanical  men,  gang  bosses,  will  always 
be  wrought  up  if  the  store  department  attempts  to  fill  their  requisi- 
tions with  something  "just  as  good,"  as  that  ordered. 

I  have  said  the  mechanical  department  will  not  order  anything 


Relation  Between  Mechanical  and  Store  Departments.    179 


,  FlG.  103 A  MODEL  RAILROAD  SHOP  MATERIAL  PLATFORM.  ON  THIS  PLAT- 
FORM, LOCOMOTIVE  CASTINGS  AND  PARTS  WHICH  HAVE  BEEN  MACHINED  TO  SIZE 
ARE  STORED  READY  FOR  SHIPMENT  TO  OUTLYING  SHOPS.  THIS  ALSO  ILLUSTRATES 
THE  GOOD  WORK  DONE  BY  A  PROGRESSIVE  GENERAL  STOREKEEPER. 


The  Mechanical  and  Store  Departments.  181 

unless  they  need  it.  This  statement  should  be  modified,  for  unless 
close  watch  is  kept  of  the  foreman  making  requisitions  they  will  con- 
tinually order  from  two  to  three  times  what  is  needed,  in  their  great 
caution  to  protect  themselves.  It  is,  however,  hardly  in  the  province 
of  the  store  department  to  dictate  as  to  what  the  foremen  shall  order, 
unless  they  are  ordering  material  which  is  not  standard. 

The  mechanical  department  should  aid  the  storehouse  to  have  a 
competent  person  pass  on  all  requisitions  and  see  that  only  the  required 
amount  and  class  of  material  is  ordered.  At  a  certain  point  where 
Su  ervision  of  sn°Ps  are  l°cated,  which  I  have  in  mind,  this  official 
Requisitions  is  known  as  the  material  supervisor,  and  the  results  of 
for  Material.  ^is  worj,  ^VQ  ^een  a  decided  decrease  in  the  amount  of 

material  ordered  for  engines  being  repaired. 

The  ordinary  gang  foreman,  when  given  a  requisition  book,  acts 
very  much  as  you  or  I  would  if  we  were  given  a  check  book  and  told 
that  our  personal  check  was  good  for  any  amount  we  cared  to  draw. 
We  would  soon  have  to  have  a  material  supervisor  or  some  other  officer 
appointed  to  watch  us  to  see  that  we  did  not  order  two  suits  of  clothes 
when  one  would  do;  turkey  and  plum-pudding  for  breakfast  when 
bacon  and  eggs  would  be  much  cheaper  and  more  for  our  own  good. 

I  have  said  that  the  ideal  storehouse  should  fill  every  requisition 
when  presented.  This  means  that  everything  should  be  carried  in 
stock  and  all  requisitions  filled  from  stock. 

I   would  have  the  store  department  return  to  the 

Returned011       maker  every  requisition  it  cannot  fill  in  three  days  or 

When  Not         a  reasonable  length  of  time,  and  with  the  return  should 

be  a  notice  to  show  when  it  was  expected  this  material 

would  be  in  stock. 

The  maker  of  the  requisition  then  makes  his  plans  to  meet  existing 
conditions.  If  there  is  no  chance  to  get  the  material  until  some  time 
long  after  he  needs  it,  he  v.ill  make  arrangements  to  use  something  else. 
If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Material  is  expected  in  stock  soon  enough 
to  meet  his  needs,  he  will  send  another  requisition  or  return  the  first 
one  at  a  later  date. 

It  was  once  very  common  on  a  certain  system  to  find  material  being 
delivered  to  their  repair  shops  for  certain  engines,  weeks  and  sometimes 
months  after  the  engines  had  gone  into  service.  I  do  not  doubt  other 
roads  had  the  same  experience.  This  material  was  without  doubt 
needed  when  ordered,  but  when  the  requisition  failed  to  be  filled 


182  Betterment  Briefs. 

promptly  the  shop  managed  to  get  along  without  it,  and  of  course  when 
delivery  was  made  had  no  use  for  it. 

The  case  is  like  that  of  a  man  who  would  order  breakfast  at  7  A.  M., 
but  the  delivery  was  not  made  until  3  P.  M.  Our  friend  would  probably 
not  want  breakfast  then,  as  he  would  have  had  dinner  in  the  meantime, 
and  this  breakfast  delivered  at  3  P.  M.  is  only  a  nuisance  to  him.  The 
only  thing  he  can  do  with  it  is  to  put  it  away  in  hopes  he  can  put  his 
hand  on  it  at  7  A.  M.  the  next  morning.  This  is  one  way  in  which  private 
stocks  are  accumulated  by  the  foreman.  How  much  better  it  would 
have  been  if  the  requisition  for  breakfast  at  7  A.  M.  had  been  returned 
immediately,  with  the  notice  that  it  could  not  be  filled  until  7  A.  M. 
tomorrow.  Our  friend  could  then  have  arranged  to  get  next  to  a  free- 
lunch  counter  this  morning  or  made  other  arrangements  to  keep  him 
going  until  his  source  of  supplies,  the  storehouse,  was  able  to  take  care 
of  his  needs. 

A  similar  illustration   carried  to  the  same  absurdity  happens  in 

the  case  of  a  summer  suit  ordered  for  June  delivery,  which  the  tailor 

does  not  deliver  until  the  following  December.     This  friend  would  be 

much  better  off  if  at  the  time  of  ordering  his  suit  he  is 

Conditions0*      told  the  delivery  wil1  not  be  made  until  December.     He 
will  then  patch  up  his  old  last  summer's  suit  and  change 

his  requisition  from  summer  to  winter  goods. 
Summing  up  conditions  as  they  should  be : 

(1)  The  mechanical  and  store  departments  should  be  entirely  sep- 

arate. 

(2)  The  men  in  each  department  should  be  specialists  in  their  line. 

(3)  Team  work  and  harmony  must  exist  between  them  as  regards 

the  matter  of  mechanical  supplies,  as  in  this  matter  the  duties 
of  both  overlap. 

(4)  The  store  department  must  take  complete  charge  of  all  material, 

and  must  be  in  a  position  to  deliver  the  goods  when  called 
upon  to  do  so. 

(5)  The  mechanical  department  must  have  confidence  in  the  store 

department,  and  not  set  up  private  storehouses  of  its  own. 

(6)  If  the  store  department  fails  to  furnish  material  as  called  for, 

individuals   in   the   mechanical   department   take   it   upon 
themselves  to  run  their  own  storehouse. 

(7)  These  private  stocks  run  into  immense  amounts  of  money  in 

the  innumerable  duplications,  no  system  and  no  records. 


The  Mechanical  and  Store  Departments.  183 

'  (8)  The  store  department  must  keep  the  quantity  and  value  of 
stock  as  low  as  possible,  and  at  the  same  time  be  able  to 
fill  all  requisitions  as  presented. 

(9)  The  quantity  and  value  of  stock  can  be  reduced  by  the  stand- 
ardizing of  all  materials. 

(10)  All  requisitions  should  be  filled  promptly. 

(11)  Requisitions  which  cannot  be  filled  in  a  reasonable  time  should 

be  returned  to  maker,  accompanied  by  a  notice  as  to  when 
the  material  should  be  in  the  storehouse  stock. 

A  paper  presented  by  H.  W.  JACOBS  before  the  Fourth  Annual  Railway 
Storekeepers'  Convention. 


SHOP  EFFICIENCY. 


CONSIDERABLE  attention  has  recently  been  given  to  the  various 
phases  of  the  betterment  work  on  the  Santa  Fe,  the  most  im- 
portant of  which  is  that  of  shop  costs,  with  its  factors,  individ- 
ual efficiency  as  to  labor  performed  and  the  scientific  scheduling  of  en- 
gines through  the  shop.  The  paper  on  this  subject  presented  by  Mr. 
A.  Lovell,  superintendent  of  motive  power  of  the  Santa  Fe,  before  the 
recent  meeting  of  the  Master  Mechanics'  Association,  attracted  con- 
siderable attention.  As  a  paper  of  this  kind  has  limitations  as  to  length, 
it  may  not  be  amiss  to  supplement,  with  more  extensive  illustrations 
and  examples,  some  phases  of  the  subject,  which  it  was  not  possible  to 
fully  develop  in  the  paper. 

The  cost  problem,  while  it  is  helped  by  the  introduction  of  carefully 
prepared  shop  schedules,  which  are  "lived  up  to,"  is  by  no  means 
solved.  The  problem  involves  each  individual  workman,  and  to  solve 
it  some  method  must  be  adopted  that  will  cause  each  man  to  work  at 
his  highest  average  efficiency.  This  does  not  mean  that 
Effort,  High  ne  *s  expected  to  over-exert  himself,  but  that  he  is  to  cut 
Efficiency  and  out  all  unecessary  delays  and  wastes.  The  method  adopt- 
ed to  accomplish  this  result  was  the  introduction  of 
the  individual-effort  method  or  bonus  system,  by  which  each  man  is 
able  to  increase  his  earnings  as  he  increases  his  average  efficiency. 

One  very  noticeable  fact  is  that  the  older  men  are  among  the  highest 
bonus-earners,  which  is  probably  due  to  the  fact  that  they  depend  to 
a  greater  extent  upon  using  their  brain  power  to  utilize  their  available 
strength,  than  do  the  younger  men.  The  accompanying  chart,  Fig. 
105,  illustrates  the  work  done  by  one  of  the  older  men  in  February,  and 
is  in  several  respects  ideal. 

It  shows  the  result  of  steady  and  insistent  work,  day  by  day.  The 
full  line  shows  the  actual  hours  worked,  which  totals  210,  while  the 
Record  of  broken  line  shows  the  standard  work  hours  accumulated, 
Good  which  also  totals  210,  making  the  man's  efficiency  for  the 

Workman.  month  100  per  cent.  The  standard  hours  are  determined 
by  schedules  which  assign  a  given  time  for  each  operation.  The  bonus 
inspector  checks  up  the  jobs  performed  by  each  man  every  day,  and 
the  standard  hours  accumulated  are  credited  to  him. 

(  184) 


Shop  Efficiency. 


185 


230 
220 

210 
200 
190 
180 
170 
'l60 
150 
140 
£30 
J20 
110 
100 
90 
80 
70 
60 
50 
40 
30 
20 
JO 

° 

210  h 

rs. 

y 

y 

r 

/2101 

rs. 

/ 

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/ 

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/ 

/ 

/ 

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y 

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7 

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Acitus 

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[    2    3    4    5     6    7     8    9    10   11  12  13  14   15  16  17  18  19  20  21  22  23  24  25  ,26  27  28 

Days 

PERSONAL  RECORD    OF    L.  J.  W. 
February  1907. 

Efficiency,  100%.         210  hours.         Rate,  40c.  per  hour.         Wages,  $84.00.        Bonus,  $16.8(X 

Total,  $100.80. 

FIG.  105 — INDIVIDUAL  EFFICIENCY   OF  A  GOOD  WORKMAN. 


186 


Betterment  Briefs. 


TABLE  AND  DIAGRAM  SHOWING  METHOD  OF  CALCULATING  BONUS  IN 
ADDITION  TO  REGULAR  WAGES.— RATE  AT  $1.00  PER  HOUR. 


•5* 

^  c 


q    w    q 


oC>oi 


i-te^co^fMot^GO 
Time  In  Hours.  Stand.  Time  tJT 


TH       <N       CO      'O*      «O 


Wages  +  Bonus 

-  Total. 

Bonus 

Wages. 

Efficiency.    Rate. 

$15.00 

$0.00 

$15.00 

0.0% 

66.6% 

$1.00 

14.00 

0.06 

14.06 

0.4 

71.4 

1.004 

13.00 

0.26 

13.26 

2.0 

76.9 

1.02 

12.00 

0.62 

12.62 

5.2 

83.3 

1.05 

11.00. 

1.20 

12.20 

10.7 

90.9 

1.109 

10.00 

2.00 

12.00 

20.0 

100.0 

1.20 

9.00 

2.80 

11.80 

31.0 

111.1 

1.31 

8.00 

3.60 

11.60 

45.0 

125.0 

1.45 

7.00 

4.40 

11.40 

72.7 

142.9 

1.63 

6.00 

5.20 

11.20 

86.6 

166.6 

1.86 

5.00 

6.00 

11.00 

120.0 

200.0 

2.20 

4.00 

6.80 

10.80 

170.0 

250.0 

2.70 

3.00 

760 

10.60 

253.3 

333.3 

3.53 

2.00 

8.40 

10.40 

420.0 

500.0 

5.20 

1.00 

9.20 

10.20 

920.0 

1000.0 

10.20 

0.00 

10.00 

10.00 

Infinite 

Infinite 

Infinite 

FIG.  IOC — CURVE  FROM  WHICH  AMOUNT  OF  BONUS  is  CALCULATED. 


Shop  Efficiency. 


187 


Hours 


250 
240 
230 
220 
210 
200 
190 
180 
170 
160 
150 
140 
130 
120 
110 

100 

261  hrsV 

[/ 

z 

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/ 

/ 

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80 
70 
GO 

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/ 

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ie 

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—  .—  • 

- 

Days 
PERSONAL  RECORD  OF  J.  D.  H. 

February  1907. 
-Efficiency  20%. •         Average  rate  30c.  per  hour 


Efficiency. 
20% 
100% 

100% 
20% 

Hours. 
261 
51  8 

261 
261 

Rate. 
30c. 
30 

SO 
30 

Wages. 
$78.30 
15.54 

78.30 
78.30 

Bonus. 
3.10 
Loss  to  company: 
15.66 

lotai. 

?78.30 
18.64 

59.66 

93.96 

78.30 

Loss  to  man:     15.66 

FIG.  107 — EFFICIENCY  RECORD  OF  A  POOR  WORKMAN 


188 


Betterment  Briefs. 


nours 
250 
240 
230 
220 
210 
200 
190 
.180 
(170 
160 
160 
140 
130 
120 

aio 

100 
90 
80 
70 
60 
60 

80 
90 
10 
0 

250  brs. 

1- 

1 

/J 

/ 

/ 

***-p""^ 

,  0 

351 

rs* 

/ 

/ 

y 

/ 

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f 

/ 

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4234567 

*DayB 
PERSONAL  RECORD  OF  J.  H.  B 

February  1907. 


Efficiency  94%.  Average  rate  38c.  per  hour.          T  f  , 
Efficiency.         Hours.            Rate.                Wages.               Bonus. 
94%                 250                 38c.                 $95.00                 $12.85             $107.85 
100%                 235                 38c.                   89.30                   17.86               107.16 

Loss  to  company:     0.69 

100% 
94% 

250                 38c.                   95.00                   19.00               114.00 
250                 38c.                   95.00                   12.85               107.85 

Lues  to  man:     6 . 15 
FIG.  108 — EFFICIENCY  RECORD  OF  A  SPASMODIC  WORKMAN. 


Shop  Efficiency.  189 
As  an  example,  a  lathe  operation  may  have  a  record  as  follows : 

Standard  Actual 

Time.  Time. 

Turn  three  eccentrics  (at  1.3) 3.9  3.3 

Turn  two  small  eccentrics  (at  1.0) 2.0  1.7 

Turn  and  bore  complete  six  lateral  swing  castings  (at  0.4).. . .     2.4  2.0 

Turn  and  fit  complete  two  knuckle  pins  (at  1.5) 3.0  3.0 


TOTAL 11.3  10.0 

Eleven  and  three-tenths  hours  would  then  be  credited  to  his  effi- 
ciency account  for  the  day's  work. 

The  following  practical  example  of  cost  study  is  taken  from  one  of 
the  shop  time-cards  from  which  the  workman's  wages,  bonus  and  per- 
sonal records  are  deduced: 

TRUING  MALLEABLE  IRON  PISTON  HEAD. 

Machine  No 0561 

Machine  Hour  Rate $0.36 

Man's  Rate 0.34 

Surcharge  to  Man 90  per  cent. 

Schedule  Time 2.2  hours. 

Actual  January  Record 2 . 25  hours. 

AVERAGE  COST  OF  EACH  OPERATION  DURING  JANUARY. 

Wages $0. 765 

Surcharge 0 . 69 

Bonus 0 . 13 

Machine  charge 0.81 


TOTAL  .....................................................   $2  .  395 

An  unusually  hard  malleable  iron  piston  head  was  de- 
Material  and     livered  to  the  operator,  who  at  once  protested,  as  he  saw 


Production        ^a^  there  would  be  no  opportunity  for  earning  a  bonus. 
The  work  was  completed  in  8.3  hours.     The  cost  of  the 
operation,  in  detail,  was  as  follows  : 
Wages  ...........................................................   $2.82 


Surcharge 2 . 54 


Bonus. . 0 . 00 


Machine  charge 2 . 99 


TOTAL  COST..  .   $8.35 


Cost  with  normal  iron 2 . 39 


Loss .  .  .   $5 . 96 


Total  increase  of  cost  due  to  hard  iron,  250  per  cent.     This  piston 
head  was  so  badly  cracked  in  putting  it  on  the  piston  rod  that  it  had 


190  Betterment  Briefs. 

to  be  scrapped,  and  the  net  loss  to  the  company  was  $18.40,  as  shown 
below : 

Cost  of  turning  head $8 . 35 

Cost  of  labor  for  putting  heat  on  rod 0. 18 

Surcharge,  45  per  cent  of  $0 . 18 0. 08 

Weight  of  head,  535  Ibs.,  at  $0.025  per  Ib 13.38 

3  per  cent  for  handling  material 0.41 


TOTAL  COST .  .$22.40 


Scrap^lue,  at  $0.0075  per  Ib 


NET  Loss .'fv.'"I?3? .$18.40 

Under  the  efficiency  plan  it  becomes  incumbent  on  the  man  to  reg- 
ister a  protest  against  improper  or  defective  material  to  protect  his  own 
interests,  and  this  institutes  a  close  check  on  the  quality  of  material 
delivered  to  the  company. 

At  100  per  cent  efficiency  the  workman  receives  a  bonus  of  20  per 
cent  of  his  wages.  For  example,  the  man  represented  in  the  chart,  Fig. 
105,  has  earned  210  times  40c.  or  $84,  and  a  bonus  equal  to  20  per  cent 
of  this,  making  his  total  income  for  the  month  $100.80.  For  efficiencies 
below  100  per  cent  the  bonus  is  taken  from  efficiency  tables,  which  are 
calculated  from  the  bonus  curve,  Fig.  106. 

Fig.  107  illustrates  the  work  of  a  poor  workman,  his  efficiency  being 
only  20  per  cent.  His  wages  for  261  hours  at  30c.  amounting  to  $78.30. 
According  to  the  schedules  the  man  should  have  done  the  same  amount 
of  work  in  51.8  hours,  which  at  30c.  an  hour  and  with  the  20  per  cent, 
bonus  would  have  made  the  total  cost  to  the  company  $18.64.  Due 
R  rd  f  ^°  ^ne  me^c^en^  performance  of  this  man,  the  company 
Poor  therefore  lost  $59.66.  If  he  had  attained  an  efficiency  of 

Workman.  10()  per  cent  m  261  hours  he  would  have  had  a  bonus 
coming  to  him  of  $15.66  in  addition  to  his  wages  of  $78.30,  which 
would  have  given  him  a  total  income  of  $93.96  for  the  month.  It  will 
be  noted  that  this  man  worked  every  Sunday  in  the  month,  and  that 
he  also  worked  overtime.  This  undoubtedly  had  something  to  do  with 
his  low  efficiency. 

The  work  of  an  unsteady  and  spasmodic  workman  is  illustrated  by 
the  diagram  in  Fig.  108. 

Rec  rd   f  Such  a  man  can  do  good  work,  but  he  is  not  to  be  de- 

Spasmodic  pended  upon.  If  his  foreman  should  want  him  for  a  rush 
Workman.  j^  ne  jg  yery  apt  to  jav  of^  or  worjc  at  a  jow  efficiency, 

and  is  apparently  of  a  somewhat  emotional  nature. 


Shop  Efficiency. 


191 


doura 
920 
880 
840 
800 
760 
'720 
680 
640 
'600 
560 
520 
480 
440 
400 
380 
320 
280 
240 
200 
160 
>20 
80 
40 

o 

867  hT 

I 

S.  1 

Hirs./ 

7 

/ 

/ 

/1 

, 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

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/ 

/ 

— 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

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s 

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— 

[     2345     6    7     8     9    10  11  12  13  14  15  16  17    18  19  20  21   23  23  24  25  26  27  25 
Days 

RECORD  OF  DRY  PIPE  GANG. 

February  1907. 


Efficiency  88%. 


Average  rate  30c.  per  hour. 


fficiency. 

88% 
100% 

J-JL11^L^1A\ 

Hours. 

867 
768 

^jr    "0  /O. 

Rate. 
30c. 
30c. 

-rxvcici^c:  ai»vv 

Wages. 
$260  .  10 
230.40 

ovt;.    i  '*  i    ii^ui  . 

Bonus. 
$19.16 
46.08 

Total. 

8279.26 
276.48 

Loss  to  company:     2.78 

100% 
88% 

867 
867 

30c. 
30c. 

260  .  10 
260.10 

52.02 
19.16 

312.12 
279  .  26 

Loss  to  men:     32.86 
FIG.  109 — EFFICIENCY  RECORD  FOR  DRY-PIPE  GANG. 


192 


Betterment  Briefs. 


22500 
21600 
20TOO 
19800 
18900 
18000 
17100 
1.1200 

2- 

tt3( 

hrs. 

?• 

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X 

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s. 

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14400 
13500 
12600 
11700 
10800 
9900 
9000 
8100 
7200 
6300 
5400 
4500 
3600 
2700 
1800 
900 

/ 

X 

/ 

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/ 

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7 

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7 

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123456 


8    9   10  11  12  13  14  15  16  17  18  19  20  21  22  23  24  25  26  27  28  29  30  31 
Days 


Efficiency. 


RECORD  OF   REPAIR  TRACK. 
January  1907. 

Efficiency  72%. 
Hours.  Rate 


Average  rateg23c.  per  hour.    BonU9 


Total. 


72% 
100% 

22061  • 
16315 

23c. 
23c. 

$5109.73 
3752.45 

$839.66 
750.49 

$5949.39 
3502.94 

Loss  to  company: 

2446.45 

100% 
72% 

22660 
22660 

23c. 

23c. 

5109.73 
5109.73 

1021.94 
839.66 

6131.71 
5949.39 

Loss  to  men: 

FIG.  110  —  EFFICIENCY  RECORD  OF  REPAIR-TRACK  GANGS. 


182.32 


Shop  Efficiency.  193 

Efficiency  charts  for  the  different  gangs  and  departments  or  for 

.  the  entire  shop  are  plotted  the  same  as  for  the  individ- 

Recordfof  ual  workers.  Fig.  109  shows  the  work  of  the  dry-pipe 
Dry-Pipe  gang  for  February,  its  efficiency  for  that  month  being  88 

per  cent. 

The  diagram  in  Fig.  110  shows  the  efficiency  of  the  repair  track  for 
the  month  of  January,  during  which  time  there  were  ten  rainy  days, 
Efficiency  ^e  cnart  distinctly  showing  the  effect  of  this  on  the  effi- 
Record  of  ciency.  During  the  following  month,  February,  there 
Repair  Track.  were  iess  rajny  davs  and  the  efficiency  of  the  depart- 
ment increased  from  72  to  85  per  cent. 

Fig.  Ill  shows  the  efficiency  of  a  shop  as  a  whole.  The  total  number 
of  hours  worked  during  the  month  was  129,470,  and  the  standard  time 
allowed  for  performing  the  various  operations  was  103,335,  so  that  the 
shop  efficiency  was  80  per  cent.  The  first  day  of  the  month  being  New 
Efficiency  Year's  day,  no  work  was  done.  The  second  day  the  men 
Record  of  came  to  work  and  worked  at  a  high  efficiency,  probably 
Entire  Shop.  due  to  the  fact  that  it  wag  the  beginning  of  the  month. 

At  the  close  of  the  third  week  the  efficiency  dropped  off  slightly,  the 
week  closing  at  a  lower  efficiency  than  at  the  beginning.  The  sixth 
day  being  Sunday,  no  work  was  done. 

The  second  week  the  workmen  began  with  a  high  efficiency,  however 
showing  slight  signs  of  a  decrease  at  the  end  of  the  eighth  day,  and  slowly 
decreasing  for  the  rest  of  the  week.  The  thirteenth  was  Sunday,  and 
no  work  was  done. 

The  first  two  days  of  the  third  week  the  efficiency  was  high.  The 
effect  to  pay  day,  the  fifteenth,  is  shown  by  the  falling-off  in  efficiency 
on  the  sixteenth.  On  the  morning  of  the  seventeenth  the  workmen 
began  to  work  more  efficiently,  the  week  as  a  whole,  however,  showing 
the  bad  effect  of  pay  day.  The  twentieth,  Sunday,  no  work  was  done. 
The  men  began  the  fourth  week  with  renewed  efforts,  their  efficiency 
being  high  for  the  first  day,  but  the  next  day  it  again  began  to  drop, 
closing  the  week  on  the  26th  with  a  much  lower  efficiency  than  any  time 
during  the  month.  The  27th  was  Sunday.  The  men  worked  very 
efficiently  the  rest  of  the  month,  falling  off  slightly  on  the  last  day. 

The  labor  and  bonus  cost  of  scheduled  work  for  the  month  at  80 
per  cent  efficiency  was  $35,505.52,  the  total  bonus  paid  amounting 
to  $4,006.83.  If  this  same  work  had  been  done  at  100  per  cent  effi- 
ciency the  labor  and  bonus  cost  would  have  been  $29,822.63,  including 
a  bonus  of  $5,006.83,  which  would  have  made  an  increase  to  the  work- 


194  Betterment  Briefs. 

men  of  $1,000  and  a  reduction  in  the  cost  of  the  work  to  the  company 
of  $5,683.84.  This  clearly  shows  that  the  greater  the  bonus  paid  to  the 
men ,  the  cheaper  the  work  becomes  to  the  company. 

RESULTS. — RECORD  OF  INDIVIDUAL  WORKMEN. — Knowing  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  individual  workmen,  their  advancement  to  positions  of 
greater  usefulness  can  be  automatically  determined. 

RECORD  OF  ENTIRE  SHOP. — By  setting  "Standard  Time"  on  each 
operation  performed  by  each  workman,  after  expert  analysis  of  con- 
ditions, a  totaling  of  standard  times  for  all  operations  of  all  men  and 
actual  times  can  be  determined,  showing  the  efficiency  of  each  shop 
department  and  for  the  shop  as  a  whole.  By  thus  determining  the 
efficiency  of  different  divisions  shops  a  much  better  comparison  of  the 
amount  of  work  turned  out  can  be  reached  than  by  the  old  haphazard 
method  of  counting  the  mere  number  of  engines  or  cars  repaired.  This 
old  method  is  inconclusive  owing  to  there  being  no  set 
Result*  from  measure  of  the  amount  or  character  of  the  work  done  on 
Individual  each  car  or  engine,  nor  of  the  condition  of  the  car  or  en- 
System.  gine  when  received  at  the  shop  and  when  again  placed  in 
service.  The  attempted  classifications  of  character  of  re- 
pairs now  in  vogue  are  mostly  based  on  the  amount  of  money  spent,  with 
scarcely  any  reference  to  amount  of  work  done.  Such  methods  tend 
to  show  for  the  shop  with  poor  organization  and  high  and  inefficient 
labor  costs,  a  more  creditable  output  than  that  of  a  shop  with  good 
administration  and  low  and  efficient  labor  costs. 

By  having  centralized  supervision  of  detailed  operation  costs  at 
each  shop,  it  is  mathematically  practicable  to  determine  the  shop  where 
each  class  of  work  can  be  most  efficiently  performed  and  the  methods 
of  the  efficient  shops  can  be  applied  to  the  places  whose  practice  needs 
improvement. 

The  system  as  outlined  has  reduced  the  cost  of  repairs,  raised  the 
pay  of  the  workmen,  and  established  the  output  of  'he  shops. 

It  is  a  task  in  itself  to  urge  and  develop  practically  such  methods. 
It  is  a  greater  task  to  convert  others  into  sympathy  and  cooperation 
with  new  ideas  so  that  the  workmen  will  not  feel  that  it  is  a  scheme  to 
get  something  from  them  for  nothing  and  to  take  away  their  liberty, 
but  that  they  may  be  brought  to  realize  that  while  the  plan  helps  the 
railroad  it  also  helps  the  workmen  in  a  fair  proportion. — H.  W.  JACOBS, 
in  American  Engineer  and  Railroad  Journal,  October,  1907. 


Shop  Efficiency. 


195 


Hours 

196,000 

189,000 
182,000 
175,000 
168,000 
161,000 
154,000 
147,000 
•  140,000 
133,000 
126,000 

119,000 
112,000 

105,000 
98,000 
91,000 
84,000 
77,000 
70,000 
63,000 
56,000 
49,000 
42,000 
35,000 
28,000 
21,000 
14,000 
7,000 

Day  of  Mo.°1 

ISO 

001 

hi 

7 

/ 

I 

J 

4uc 

hi 

y 

/ 

- 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

—  1 

f 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

,' 

- 

/ 

/ 

/ 

, 

/ 

/ 

1 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 
/ 

t 

/ 

/ 

// 

/ 

/ 

_ 

/ 

Actual  Time 

/ 

St 

an 

dard  Til 

ne 

— 

2    3    4    5    6    7    8    9   10  11  12  13  14  15  16  17  18  19  20  21  22  23  24  25  26  27  28  29  30  31 

Efficiency.          Hours. 


88% 
100% 


100% 
88% 


180.000 
158,400 


180,000 
180,000 


Man  rate  at  Surcharge  at 

25c.  per  hour.  40c.  per  hour. 

$45,000.00  $75,000.00 

39,600.00  63,360.00 


Bonus. 

$3,744.00 
7,920.00 


Total. 

$120,744.00 
110,880.00 


Loss  to  company:     9,864.00 


45,000,00 
45,000.00 


9,000.00 
3,744.00 


54,000.00 
48,744.00 


Loss  to  men:     5,256.00 

Average  rate  per  hour  without  bonus 25 

with  bonus  at    88  per  cent 275 

"   100  30 

FIG.  Ill — EFFICIENCY  RECORD  OF  A  SHOP. 


196 


Betterment  Briefs. 


TABLE  AND   DIAGRAM  SHOWING  METHOD   OF   CALCULATING  BONUS  IN 
ADDITION  TO  REGULAR  WAGES.— ENTIRE   SHOP. 


=    c    n    o 


•5  «       c    s 

5,5  §  8 


Bit; 


Wages  +  Bonus  • 

=  Total. 

Bonus 
Wages. 

Efficiency, 

Rate. 

59400 

$0000 

$59400 

0.0% 

66.7% 

$0.25 

55440 

277 

55717 

0.5 

71.4 

0.251 

51480 

1030 

52510 

2.0 

76.9 

0.255 

47520 

2471 

49991 

5.2 

83.3 

0.26 

45000 

3744 

48744 

8.3 

88.0 

0.275 

39600 

7920 

47520 

20.0 

100.0 

0.30 

35640 

11088 

46728 

31.0 

111.1 

0.33 

31680 

14256 

45936 

45.0 

125.0 

0.36 

27720 

17424 

45144 

62.9 

142.9 

0.41 

23760 

20582 

44352 

86.6 

166.6 

0.47 

19800 

23760 

43560 

120.0 

200.0 

0.55 

15840 

26928 

42768 

170.0 

250.0 

0.68 

11880 

30096 

41976 

253.3 

333.3 

0.88 

7920 

33264 

41184 

420.0 

500.0 

1.30 

3960 

36432 

40392 

920.0 

1000.0 

2.55 

0000 

39600 

39600 

Infinite 

Infinite   Infinite 

*  i  s  i  r !  i  §  § !  i  §  i  j  j  i 

Time  in  Hours 

The  above  diagram  represents  the  bonus  or  efficiency  curve  as  applied  to  an  entire 
shop  or  shop  department.  This  example  shows  the  collective  standard  output  of  636  men 
each  working  a  month  of  250  hours,  at  an  average  rate  of  25  cents  an  hour.  If  standard 
is  not  attained,  but  an  efficiency  of  less  than  100  per  cent  is  made,  a  loss  results  both  to 
the  Company  and  to  the  men.  For  example:  If  the  efficiency  is  only  88  per  cent,  the 
bonus  earned  by  the  men  is  $4176.00  less  than  if  they  had  attained  100  per  cent,  and  the 
work  has  required  21,600  more  hours  of  time  than  the  Company  is  paying  for, — an  excess 
cost  of  $9864.00.  The  loss  to  the  Company  on  account  of  inefficiency  is  over  8  per  cent 
of  the  labor  cost  alone,  and  the  loss  to  the  men  nearly  11  per  cent.  It  is  thus  evident 
that  it  is  to  the  interest  of  the  men,  as  individuals  and  collectively,  and  to  the  Company, 
to  attain  a  maximum  degree  of  efficiency  for  a  maximum  number  of  men. 

Standard  Form  1252,  the  monthly  statement  of  bonus  operations,  gives  an  efficiency 
summary  of  each  shop,  so  that  master  mechanics  and  other  officers  may  have  a  ready 
index  of  where  it  will  pay  the  Company  in  dollars  saved  on  work  done,  to  encourage  and 
Stimulate  an  increase  in  efficiency  to  the  highest  point. 


Shop  Efficiency.  197 


SHOP  EFFICIENCY. 
EDITORIAL  COMMENT  BY  AMERICAN  ENGINEER  AND  RAILROAD  JOURNAL,  OCTOBER,  1907. 

We  are  fortunate  in  being  able  to  present,  in  this  issue,  an  article  on  "Shop 
Efficiency,"  by  Mr.  H.  W.  Jacobs.  It  goes  somewhat  more  into  detail  as  to  the 
method  of  determining  the  exact  efficiency  of  the  individual  worker,  gangs,  or 
shops  as  a  whole,  than  was  possible  in  the  paper  presented  at  the  recent  meeting 
of  the  Master  Mechanics'  Association  by  Mr.  A.  Lovell  on  "Shop  Cost  Systems" 
(July  issue),  or  in  the  article  in  our  June  issue,  by  Mr.  Harrington  Emerson  on 
"  The  Methods  of  Exact  Measurement  Applied  to  Individual  and  Shop  Efficiency 
at  the  Topeka  Shops,"  or  in  the  article  by  Mr.  J.  F.  Whiteford  in  our  June  issue, 
on  "  Roundhouse  Betterment  Work."  This  matter  of  calculating  the  exact  effi- 
ciency of  the  individual  or  shop  was  one  of  the  later  developments  (and  one  of  the 
most  important)  of  the  betterment  work.  To  set  a  standard  time  for  a  piece  of 
work,  or  to  determine  a  reasonable  cost  for  a  certain  operation  or  the  maintenance 
of  a  piece  of  equipment,  and  then  encourage  the  men  to  strive  to  reach  it,  is  the 
key  to  the  best  work  which  has  been  done  along  betterment  lines  in  our  mechan- 
ical departments.  

An  important  feature  of  the  betterment  work  on  the  Santa  Fe  is  that  just 
as  soon  as  possible  the  betterment  department  was  merged  into  the  regular  me- 
chanical department  organization.  At  the  present  time  four  men,  each  having 
general  supervision  of  the  betterment  work  on  a  division,  report  directly  to  the 
assistant  superintendent  of  motive  power,  Mr.  H.  W.  Jacobs.  These  men  are 
Mr.  J.  L.  Sydnor,  on  the  Coast  Lines;  Mr.  C.  J.  Drury,  on  the  Western  Grand 
Division;  Mr.  E.  E.  Arisen,  on  the  Eastern  Grand  Division;  and  Mr.  J.  E.  Epler, 
on  the  Gulf  Lines.  In  addition  to  these  Mr.  Raffe  Emerson  assists  Mr.  Jacobs 
and  Mr.  J.  F.  Whiteford  has  general  supervision  of  roundhouse  work  over  the  en- 
tire system.  Bonus  supervisors  are  located  at  each  point.  Mr.  Clive  Hastings 
handles  statistical  matters  in  connection  with  the  betterment  work,  and  reports 
directly  to  the  2nd  Vice-President,  Mr.  J.  W.  Kendrick. 


We  have  had  so  many  requests  for  the  special  article  on  betterment  work 
on  the  Santa  Fe,  published  in  our  December,  1906,  issue,  and  for  other  articles 
which  have  since  appeared  concerning  the  later  developments,  that  it  has  been 
suggested  that  a  list  of  all  the  articles  touching  on  this  work,  which  have  appeared 
in  our  Journal,  be  published.  These  are  as  follows: 

"Shop  Betterment  and  the  Individual  Effort  Method  of  Profit-Sharing," 
by  Harrington  Emerson.  (A  reprint  of  a  pamphlet  which  was  prepared  for  dis- 
tribution among  the  workmen  on  the  Santa  Fe.) — Feb.,  1906. 

"Locomotive  Repair  Schedules,"  by  C.  J.  Morrison.  (A  detailed  description 
of  the  schedules  in  use  at  the  Topeka  shops.) — Sept.,  1906. 

"The  Surcharge  Problem,"  by  C.  J.  Morrison.  (A  description  of  the  method 
of  determining  surcharges  and  how  they  are  applied.) — Oct.,  1906. 

The  above  article  excited  considerable  discussion,  and  communications  con- 
cerning it  were  published  in  the  Nov.  and  Dec.,  1906,  issues.  Mr.  Morrison  going 
into  greater  detail  as  to  the  exact  methods  of  determining  the  surcharge.  Other 
communications  appeared  in  the  Feb.,  1907,  issue. 

"Betterment  Work  on  the  Santa  Fe."  (A  complete  study  of  the  develop- 
ment of  this  work  and  the  general  and  specific  results  which  had  been  obtained  to 
date.  The  article  covered  26  pages.)— Dec.,  1906. 


198  Betterment  Briefs. 

Communications  concerning  the  above  article  appeared  in  the  Feb.,  1907,  and 
March,  1907,  issues 

"Dispatching  Board  for  Engine  Repairs,"  by  C.  J.  Morrison. — April,  1907. 

"Roundhouse  Betterment  Work,"  by  J.  F.  Whiteford.— June,  1907. 

"The  Methods  of  Exact  Measurement  Applied  to  Individual  and  Shop  Effi- 
ciencies at  the  Topeka  Shops,"  by  Harrington  Emerson. — June,  1907. 

Communications  concerning  the  above  article  appeared  in  the  July  and  Au- 
gust, 1907,  issues. 

"  Shop  Cost  System  and  the  Effect  of  Shop  Schedules  Upon  Output  and  Cost 
of  Locomotive  Repairs,"  by  A.  Lovell.  (A  reprint  of  a  paper  presented  before 
the  Master  Mechanics'  Association,  and  an  abstract  of  the  discussion.) — July, 
1907. 

"  Shop  Efficiency,"  by  H.  W.  Jacobs. — In  this  issue. 

Editorial  comments  on  the  betterment  work  on  the  Santa  Fe  appeared  in 
the  Dec.,  1906,  issue;  the  Jan.,  1907,  issue,  and  June,  1907,  issue. 


STANDARDIZATION  AND  LABOR  EFFICIENCY  IN  RAILROAD  SHOPS. 
EDITORIAL  COMMENT  BY  THE  ENGINEERING  MAGAZINE,  AUGUST,  1907. 

The  Santa  Fe  has  taken  a  leading  place  in  the  application  of  standardization 
and  systematization  to  the  efficient  and  economical  management  of  railway  shops, 
on  the  principles  laid  down  in  Mr.  H.  W.  Jacobs's  notable  series  of  articles  in 
recent  numbers  of  The  Engineering  Magazine.  Economy  and  efficiency  of  labor 
have  been  studies  in  great  detail,  and  the  remarkable  results  obtained  at  the 
Topeka  shops  form  the  subject  of  an  interesting  paper  by  Mr.  Harrington  Emerson 
in  a  recent  number  of  the  A  merican  Engineer  and  Railroad  Journal.  The  paper 
is  interesting  also  in  offering  a  concrete  example  of  the  benefits  to  be  derived 
from  standardization,  as  described  in  an  article  on  the  economical  utilization  of 
labor  reviewed  in  these  columns  last  month.  Mr.  Emerson's  article  gives  many 
tables  and  examples  which  it  is  impossible  to  reproduce,  the  following  extracts 
giving  only  an  outline  of  the  methods  employed  and  the  results  obtained. 

"Shop  efficiency  pays.  By  shop  efficiency  is  meant  a  careful  investigation 
and  betterment  of  all  conditions,  so  that  with  the  same  effort  men  can  accomplish 
more.  To  secure  the  cooperation  of  the  worker  with  the  management  in  cutting 
out  unnecessary  wastes  at  the  Topeka  shops  of  the  Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe 
Railway,  he  is  offered  an  increase  of  as  much  as  20  per  cent.  If  by  means  of 
special  strength  or  skill  he  does  more  work  than  normal  he  is  given  all  the  gain; 
for  instance,  if  he  does  in  one  hour  a  job  standardized  at  two  hours  he  receives 
two  hours'  pay  for  an  hour's  time.  The  management  gains,  firstly,  by  the  elimi- 
nation of  unnecessary  wastes,  although  it  gives  the  worker  a  20  per  cent  increase, 
and  it  particularly  gains  by  the  increased  efficiency  of  its  machines  and  other 
equipment,  which  results  in  a  larger  output  without  the  necessity  of  increasing 
the  capital  investment.  The  actual  results  at  the  end  of  two  years  of  systemati- 
cally organizing  the  Topeka  shops  on  an  efficiency  basis  were: 

To  increase  the  average  pay  of  the  men 14 . 5% 

To  decrease  the  unit  cost  of  production 36 . 3% 

To  increase  the  shop  output 57 . 0% 

"There  is  no  reason  why  all  the  men  should  not  earn  at  least  a  25  per  cent 
increase  above  standard  wages,  and  many  of  them  do,  40  per  cent  of  them  earn- 
ing a  25  per  cent  increase  and  better.  The  average  efficiency  of  all  of  the  men 
in  the  month  of  April,  1907,  was  94.2  per  cent.  Two  years  ago  it  was  about  60 
per  cent.  Although  the  average  of  all  the  workers  is  94.2  per  cent,  there  are 
many  who  are  better,  many  who  are  not  as  good.  One  man  earned  105.4  per 
cent  above  standard  wages.  Four  men  drawing  full  pay  were  64.7  per  cent  below 


Labor  Efficiency  in  Railroad  Shops. 


199 


CYLINDER    CASTINGS    FOR    BALANCED    COMPOUND   PRAIRIE    TYPE    LOCOMOTIVE — 
INSIDE  CYLINDERS  INCLINED,  18  BY  28  IN.     OUTSIDE  CYLINDERS  30  BY  28  IN. 

SCHEDULE  TIMES  FOR  BORING  COMPOUND  CYLINDERS  ON  CYLINDER 
BORING-MILL,  ILLUSTRATED  ON  P^GE  129. 

a  All  (3)  Chambers — bored,  counterbored  and  ends  faced,  13.8  hrs. 

6  L.  P.  Cylinder — bored,  counterbored  and  ends  faced. ...   5.9  hrs. 

c  H.  P.  Cylinder — bored,  counterbored  and  ends  faced.. .  .   2.5  hrs. 

d  Valve  Chamber — bored,  counterbored  and  ends  faced. . .    1.9  hrs. 

e  L.  P.  Cylinder — bored,  one  cut 1.1  hrs. 

/  H.  P.  Cylinder — bored,  one  cut 5  hr. 

g  Valve  Chamber — bored,  one  cut 3  hr. 

The  standard  machine  schedules  for  boring  complete  compound  and 
simple  cylinders  are  as  follows,  expressing  the  time  allowance  in  hours 
and  tenths  for  convenience  in  time  reckoning  on  the  24-hour  system : 
2A1— 2     BORING  COMPLETE — BALANCED  COMPOUND.  RATE,  .36 

Boring  one  (1)  balanced  compound  cylinder  |  casting  on  cylinder  boring- 
mill.  Includes  setting  up,  adjusting  and  clamping  casting,  rough  boring, 
finishing,  counterboring  and  facing  both  ends  of  three  (3)  chambers  to 
blue-print.  Casting  undamped  and  on  floor.  Per  casting: 

Time. 

1— Classes  11,12,  13,  14,  15,  16 00.0 

2— Classes  21,  22 00.0 

2A1-22     BORING  COMPLETE — SIMPLE  SLIDE  VALVE.  RATE,  .36 

Boring  one  (1)  simple  slide  valve  cylinder  \  casting  on  cylinder  boring- 
mill.  Includes  setting  up,  adjusting  and  clamping  casting,  rough  boring, 
finishing,  counterboring  and  facing  both  ends  of  one  (1)  chamber  to 
blue- print.  Casting  undamped  and  on  floor.  Per  casting: 

1 — Classes,  all  slide  valve  engines.  Time. 

a  Cylinders  under  24  inches 00 . 0 

b          "         24  inches  and  over . .  . .  00 . 0 


ABOVE  AND  ON  THE  NEXT  PAGE  ARE  SAMPLES  OF  STANDARD  EFFICIENCY  SHOP  SCHEDULES  AS 
APPLIED  IN  THE  SHOPS  OF  A  LARGE  RAILWAY  SYSTEM.  THESE  SCHEDULES  COVER  SOME  23,000 
OPERATIONS,  WITH  OVER  5000  SKETCHES  TO  ILLUSTRATE  SAME.  THIS  PROVIDES  AN  ACCURATE  CHECK 
ON  THE  COST  OF  PRODUCTION  OF  EACH  SHOP,  AND  IS  THE  MEANS  OF  KEEPING  DOWN  REPAIR  COSTS 
TO  A  MINIMUM  FIGURE.  THE  SAMPLE  CYLINDER-ERECTING  SCHEDULES  GIVEN  ON  FOLLOWING 


200  Betterment  Briefs. 


Cylinders. 

1AO-1  APPLYING  2,  COMPLETE.  RATE,  — 

Applying  one  pair  of  two  (2)  new  cylinder  castings  to  an  engine  in  the  erect- 
ing shop.  Includes  laying-off  connecting  bolt  holes  on  cylinder  halves ; 
drilling,  counterboring,  and  reaming  connection  bolt  holes,  driving  bolts, 
and  bolting  halves  together;  laying-off  saddle  for  chipping,  chipping 
saddle  to  fit  smoke  arch;  level  and  line  boiler  and  frames;  drilling  and 
reaming  saddle-bolt  holes,  driving  saddle  bolts,  and  bolting  cylinders  to 
smoke  arch ;  reaming  all  cylinder  frame  bolt  holes,  drilling  holes  when 
necessary,  and  driving  all  bolts;  fitting  and  driving  frame  keys;  lay 
off  and  grind  in  back  cylinder  and  valve  heads,  applying  all  cylinder  and 
valve  head  studs,  bolting  up  back  heads ;  cleaning  out  ports,  steam  pas- 
sages and  cylinders  and  blowing  out  with  steam  or  air.  ™ . 

1.  Classes  31  to  34;  36  to  38,  incl.  (single  frame) 00.0 

2.  "       41  to  45;  47  to  49,  incl.  (double  frame) 00.0 

3.  "       51  to  54;  56,  57,  58,  59 00.0 

4.  "       61,62,64,68 00.0 

5.  "       71,74,76 00.0 

6.  "       81,  82,  83,84,  85,  86,87,88 00.0 

Bolts — Connection. 

1A9-1     REAMED.  RATE,  — 

Reaming  connection  bolt  holes  through  cylinder  castings,  bolted  together 
temporarily,  complete  for  applying  connection  bolts.     Per  bolt: 
1.  All  Classes.  Time. 

a  With  ratchet 00.0 

b  With  air  motor 00.0 

Gland — Exhaust. 

1A37-1     LAYOUT.  RATE,  — 

Layout  for  drill  and  boring  one  (1)  new  L.  P.  exhaust  gland.     Per  gland : 

Time. 
1.  Classes  56,  68,  92 00.0 

Head— Back  Cylinder. 

1A39-3     GROUND  IN — NEW  WORK.  RATE,  — 

Grinding  joint  on  one  (1)  new  back  cylinder  head,  when  casting  is  on  floor. 
Per  head : 

1.  All  Classes,  cylinders  under  24  inches.  Time. 

a  With  air  motor 00.0 

b  By  hand 00.0 

2.  All  Classes,  cylinders  24  inches  and  above. 

c  With  air  motor 00.0 

d  By  hand 00.0 

Valves — By-Pass. 

1A55-1     JOB  COMPLETE.  RATE,  - 

Grinding  in  one  (1)  by-pass  valve  and  one  (1)  joint  ring,  applying  studs, 

put  up  valve  chamber  and  bolt  down  complete.     Per  valve :          . 

j.  i?nc» 

1.  Classes  41,  42,  57,  58,  59,  61,  72 00.0 


Labor  Efficiency  in  Railroad  Shops.  201 

normal,  doing  only  one-third  of  what  they  should  have  done.  These  figures  are 
not  guessed  at,  but  taken  from  the  actual  operations  of  this  large  locomotive 
repair  shop,  in  which  every  job  is  standardized  and  the  efficiency  of  every  man 
determined.  Now,  the  system  is  perfected  and  it  costs  no  more  to  keep  it  in 
operation  than  the  former  barren  methods." 

The  successive  steps  of  progress  were: 

1.  A  permanent  and  standard  method  for  determining  costs  of  every  opera- 
tion. 

2.  The  betterment  of  all  conditions. 

3.  The  determination  of  a  standard  cost  of  every  operation. 

4.  A  comparison  of  actual  costs  with  standard  costs  as  to  every  operation. 

5.  The  guarantee  to  each  individual  worker  of  standard  wages,  and  the  pay- 
ment of  an  added  amount,  based  not  on  the  piece  or  on  output,  but  on  efficiency. 

6.  A  check  and  reward  of  each  foreman  on  the  basis  of  the  efficiency  of  those 
under  him. 

7.  A  check  of  efficiency  of  the  shop  as  a  whole  from  month  to  month. 

8.  The  use  in  all  accounting,  of  standard  costs,  not  accidental  actual  costs. 

A  brief  outline  of  the  successive  steps  follows : 

"  Costs  are  of  two  kinds,  those  that  can  be  located  and  those  that  cannot  be 
located.  The  work  of  a  machinist  and  also  of  his  machine  can  be  located.  The 
problem  of  cost  determination  reduces  itself  into  apportioning  to  each  man  and 
each  machine,  the  indirect  or  unlocated  costs  in  addition  to  the  direct  or  located 
costs.  To  do  this,  each  item  of  indirect  cost  is  apportioned  either  to  men  or  to 
machines  or  partly  to  one  and  partly  to  the  other.  Having  thus  secured  two 
grand  totals,  one  of  indirect  men  costs  and  the  other  of  machine  costs,  the  totals 
are  subdivided  to  various  departments.  Whereas  the  indirect  cost  as  a  whole 
may  be  75  per  cent  of  the  pay-roll,  within  the  confines  of  a  department,  the  per- 
centage may  vary  from  15  per  cent  up  to  400  per  cent,  showing  how  absolutely 
inaccurate  the  usual  method  is  of  applying  the  same  flat  rate  of  factor,  surcharge 
or  burden  to  all  departments  alike. 

"Having  secured  substantial  accuracy  by  apportioning  each  class  of  costs, 
men-costs  and  machine-costs,  to  each  department,  no  great  errors  can  arise  in  any 
particular  method  of  subdividing  departmental  charges  to  specific  men  and  ma- 
chines. The  simplest  method  is  therefore  preferable.  The  method  adopted  at 
Topeka  was  to  assess  indirect  men-costs  as  a  percentage  on  applied  labor,  to 
assess  all  direct  and  indirect  machine-costs  as  a  yearly  charge  on  the  inventory 
value  of  the  machines.  To  ascertain  the  hourly  rate  for  each  machine,  the  yearly 
charge  to  the  machine  was  divided  by  2,400  hours,  it  being  assumed  that  the 
machine  worked  80  per  cent  of  the  time.  If  there  were  any  gains  in  simplicity 
to  be  effected  by  modifying  this  general  method  within  the  boundaries  of  a  de- 
partment there  was  no  hesitation  in  allowing  common -sense  to  govern.  For 
instance,  when  it  was  discovered  that  a  direct  worker  on  a  machine  did  200  dif- 
ferent small  jobs  a  day,  he  was  at  once  considered  an  indirect  worker,  and  when 
a  machine  rate  worked  out  at  $0.01  an  hour,  the  machine  was  promptly  relegated 
to  the  list  of  indirect  machines.  There  is  no  sense  in  an  accuracy  that  makes 
the  distribution  of  cost  amount  to  more  than  the  cost  itself. 

"  Power  is  determined  at  so  much  per  horse-power  and  floor  space  at  so  much 
per  square  foot  for  the  plant  as  a  whole  and  charged  on  a  flat  basis  to  each  de- 
partment. If  one  department  is  further  from  the  power-house  than  another  and 
therefore  suffers  a  greater  line-drop  loss,  this  loss  is  considered  a  plant  loss,  and 
a  department  loss,  and  it  is  borne  in  the  form  of  a  general  increase  in  power  cost. 
What  would  one  think  of  a  gas  or  water  company  which  charged  more  for  gas 
or  water  because  the  customer  was  farther  from  the  central  plant,  or  which  charged 
repairs  of  mains  to  the  customers  served  by  the  mains?  Yet  just  this  kind  of 


202  Betterment  Briefs. 

cost  accounting  has  brought  the  whole  art  of  factory  cost  accounting  into  de- 
served disrepute! 

"With  a  machine  rate,  man  rate,  and  man  surcharge  provided,  and  time 
known,  the  cost  of  every  operation  is  at  once  determinable. 

"The  betterment  of  all  conditions  was  a  very  large  task,  and  involved  every- 
thing that  could  be  done  to  improve  machines,  tools,  operation,  and  general  com- 
fort of  the  men;  as,  for  instance,  better  lighting  and  heating.  It  is  evident  that 
standard  costs  could  not  be  determined  until  conditions  were  in  the  main  stand- 
ardized 

"The  determination  of  standard  costs  was  most  completely  and  conscien- 
tiously carried  put.  The  motto  adopted  and  promulgated  by  the  authorities 
in  a  pamphlet  distributed  to  the  men  was : 

'Fairness,  not  Favoritism. 
Individuality,  not  Subserviency. 
Efficiency,  not  Drudgery/ 

"A  time  study  of  a  job  under  actual  working  conditions  by  the  regular 
worker  was  made  by  a  practical  man,  a  machinist,  a  boiler-maker,  or  a  black- 
smith, as  the  case  might  be.  The  machines  and  other  conditions,  tools,  belting, 
speed,  etc.,  were  first  adjusted.  It  makes  no  difference  whether  the  job  under 
observation  actually  took  a  long  or  a  short  time.  It  was  the  duty  of  the  ob- 
server to  set  down  a  reasonable  and  proper  time.  As  a  rule  the  times  eliminated 
from  standard  were  not  those  of  reasonable  work,  but  those  of  unnecessary  waste. 

"The  comparison  of  actual  costs  with  standard  costs  as  to  every  operation  is 
exceedingly  easy.  Each  job  is  assigned  to  each  man  on  a  work-card  which  states 
the  standard  time.  The  man  notes  his  own  actual  time,  which  in  the  aggregate 
must  check  with  his  clock  time.  The  efficiency  of  each  man  is  tabulated  each 
month,  and  the  efficiency  reward  is  on  a  sliding  scale.  It  begins  at  67  per  cent 
and  increases  rapidly  according  to  a  table  carried  out  to  tenths  of  a  per  cent. 

"  The  efficiency  of  the  foreman  depends  on  the  efficiency  of  all  the  men  under 
him.  If  all  the  men  average  100  per  cent  the  foreman  receives  20  per  cent  in- 
crease on  his  own  wages.  Under  some  other  foreman  the  extra  earnings  of  the 
men  might  be  in  the  aggregate  more,  but  hot  average  as  well,  if  some  men  were 
very  good  and  others  very  poor.  Such  a  foreman  would  earn  less  increase,  so  it 
is  to  the  advantage  of  a  foreman  to  bring  up  his  whole  force  evenly." 

Mr.  Emerson  shows  two  diagrams  of  monthly  records  of  shop  efficiency, 
the  abscissae  of  the  points  on  the  curves  representing  percentages  of  efficiency, 
and  the  ordinates,  percentages  of  time  worked  at  the  efficiencies  shown.  On 
these  a  vertical  line  shows  the  average  efficiency  for  the  month.  Commenting 
on  these  records,  Mr.  Emerson  says: 

"  Shop  efficiency  as  a  whole  is  determined  by  the  average  efficiency  of  all  the 
workers.  The  two  diagrams  show  the  same  shop  in  two  successive  months,  and 
the  improvement  in  the  second  month  is  largely  due  to  the  lessons  in  the  diagram 
of  the  first  month.  It  is  plain  that  the  shop  is  improving  when  the  average 
efficiency  line  moves  to  the  right,  that  it  is  retrograding  when  it  moves  to  the 
left.  It  can  be  made  to  move  to  the  right  by  finding  out  what  the  matter  is  with 
the  men  whose  average  efficiency  is  low,  and  all  workers  with  an  efficiency  under 
70  per  cent  should  be  investigated.  The  record  is  there  not  only  as  to  monthly 
efficiency,  as  a  whole,  but  as  to  every  single  job  done  in  the  month.  It  often 
happens  that  efficiency  falls  through  no  fault  of  the  worker,  as  when  a  steel  casting 
is  so  hard  as  to  make  normal  work  impossible.  In  very  marked  cases  of  this 
kind,  temporary  schedules  are  put  into  effect  to  suit  the  peculiar  and  exceptional 
occurrence. 

"Since  every  job  is  standardized,  it  necessarily  has  a  standard  cost.  How 
ridiculous  it  would  be  for  a  railroad  company  to  attempt  to  vary  its  ticket  prices 
on  account  of  accidental  delays  or  extraordinary  expenses,  as  for  a  wreck. 

"  It  is  not  less  ridiculous  to  attempt  to  follow  into  cost  accidental  variations 
of  shop  operation.  If  a  fast  worker  is  on  a  job  one  day  and  a  slow  worker  on  the 


Labor  Efficiency  in  Railroad  Shops.  203 

same  job  the  next  day,  both  have  varied  from  standard,  but  the  selling  price  of 
what  they  have  made  has  not  changed. 

"Variations  from  standard  costs  are  accidents  of  shop  operation,  and  are 
to  be  taken  care  of,  not  in  detail  but  as  a  whole,  by  a  factor  added  in  the  office. 
In  the  examples  of  the  two  months,  the  efficiency  of  labor  was  89.5  in  March. 
Actual  labor  costs  were  therefore  11.7  per  cent,  and  could  have  been  applied  to 
each  item  of  the  output  in  the  following  month.  In  April  the  actual  costs  were 
6.2  above  standard,  so  for  May  6.2  per  cent  could  have  been  added  to  the  direct 
labor  part.  The  discrepancies  should,  however,  be  averaged  for  at  least  twelve 
months,  and  if  this  were  done  it  would  be  found  that  the  fluctuation  in  office 
factor  to  be  thrown  forward  with  the  succeeding  month  would  not  vary  as  much 
as  1  per  cent  from  month  to  month. 

"The  effects  of  this  system  of  shop  management  are: 

"(1)  To  increase  output  enormously  without  adding  to  shop  equipment  or 
space. 

"(2)  To  reduce  unit  costs  as  much  as  30  per  cent  or  more. 

"(3)  To  increase  the  pay  of  the  best  men  as  much  as  30  per  cent  on  the  aver- 
age. 

"  (4)  To  hold  permanently  the  best  men. 

"  (5)  To  know  accurately  the  cost  of  every  item  before  work  is  begun  on  it. 

"The  system  is  equally  applicable  to  railroad  operations  as  a  whole,  i.  e., 
the  mileage  of  engines  and  cars  and  tonnage  movement.  It  is,  in  fact,  on  the 
Santa  Fe  now  being  adopted  to  determine  the  efficiency  of  each  engine,  exactly 
as  in  the  Topeka  shop  it  has  been  perfected  to  determine  the  efficiency  of  each 
man.  Even  as  men  in  average  shops  work  with  less  than  60  per  cent  efficiency, 
so  also  do  engines  work  with  less  than  the  60  per  cent  efficiency.  What  was  done 
with  the  men  in  the  shop  can  be  done  with  engines." 


GENERAL  TOOL  SYSTEM. 

Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  Railway. 


PREVIOUS  issues  of  this  journal  have  called  special  attention  to  the 
comprehensive  betterment  work  undertaken  in  the  motive  power 
department  of  the  Santa  Fe.     This  work  was  inaugurated  ear'y  in 
1904,  at  a  time  of  labor  difficulties  and  upon  completion  of  one  of  the 
largest  locomotive  repair  shops  in  the  country,  at  Topeka.     At  the  same 
time  the  managing  officers  undertook  to  make  adequate  provision  for  an 
immensely  increasing  traffic,  that  was  clearly  foreseen,  by  the  acquisition 
of  a  large  number  of  the  most  modern  and  very  heavy  locomotives  for 
both  passenger  and  freight  service. 

In  undertaking  the  betterment  work  it  was  the  desire  of  the  manage- 
ment to  use  this  motive  power  to  the  best  advantage  and  at  the  same 
time  to  keep  the  repair  costs  of  these  large  and  new  types  of  engines 
Ob'  t  f  within  a  reasonable  figure.  Most  of  the  locomotives  were 

Betterment  compounds,  many  of  them  of  the  balanced  type.  In  or- 
Work.  faf  fo  aciequately  take  care  of  the  shopping  of  these 

engines,  and  to  carry  out  thoroughly  a  system  of  standardization  of  loco- 
motive parts,  centrally  manufactured  at  the  Topeka  shops,  it  was  real- 
ized that  the  tool  and  machinery  equipments  of  the  shops  and  the 
methods  of  doing  the  work  must  be  the  very  best.  For  this  reason 
special  attention  was  directed  to  the  tool  and  machinery  problem  at  the 
beginning  of  the  betterment  work,  an  attention  which  has  been  consist- 
ently followed  up  to  the  present  time. 

While  the  technical  journals  have  made  some  mention  of  this  phase 
of  the  work,  its  importance  as  the  keystone  in  the  arch  of  betterment 
and  economy  for  the  production  of  efficiency  has,  perhaps,  been  lost 
sight  of  in  the  more  extensive  mention  that  has  been  made  of  matters 
of  greater  magnitude  in  the  gross  amount  of  costs  involved. 

The  purpose  of  this  article  is  to  consider  the  details  of  this 

Outline  of  remarkably  successful  application  of  commercial  tool 
looi  System.  . 

methods  to  railway  shop  practice.     The  plan  of  this  super- 
vision comprised: 

FIRST.  The  use  of  tools  that  would  foster  the  wholesale  production 
of  standard  locomotive  and  car  parts  at  the  central  shop. 

(204) 


General  Tool  System. 


205 


Bevel  Pinion  Soft  Steel 
IE  Teeth  6  Pitch 
face  Angle    8S°3' 
Face  of  Tooth  1" 
Outsid*  Diam. 


Brass 
10  Thds.R.H. 
Bevel  Gear  Soft  Steel 
36  Teeth  6  Pitch      , 
Face  Angle   7 
Face  of  Tooth  1' 
Outside  Diam. 


JJo.  i  Morse  Taper  xf 
Ssft  Steel 


v  Brass  Bushing 


FIG.  112 — ANGLE  DEVICE  FOR  DRILLING  AND  REAMING  IN  CLOSE  QUARTERS. 
THREE  SIZES  ARE  MADE,  THE  ILLUSTRATION  SHOWING  THE  LARGEST. 


206 


Betterment  Briefs. 


FIG.  113 — STANDARD  MOTOR  BLOCK  AND  TACKLE,  DESIGNED  AND  BUILT  IN  To- 

PEKA   TOOL-ROOM.       A\    EXAMPLE    OF   CAPACITY   FOR   REFINED    MANUFACTURE. 


General  Tool  System. 


207 


FIG.  114 — STANDARD  BLACKSMITH  FLATTER.  AN  EXAMPLE  OF  ECONOMICAL 
TOOL  MANUFACTURE  BY  DROP  FORGE.  DIES  AND  METHOD  DEVISED  BY  AN  AGRES- 
SIVE  SHOP  SUPERINTENDENT  AND  HIS  INGENIOUS  BLACKSMITH  FOREMAN.  NET 
LABOR  AND  MATERIAL  COST,  13  CENTS. 


208 


Betterment  Briefs. 


Vote:  All  Reamers  Fluted  with  Left  Hand  Spirals 
62 '"pitch  and  Cutting  Faces  Radial 

FIG.  115 — STANDARD  CROSSHEAD  AND  PISTON  REAMERS.     THERE  ARE  NINE 
SIZES  IN  ALL,  WITH  DIAMETERS  VARYING  BY  THREE-EIGHTHS  OF  AN  INCH.     THE 

THREE    SMALLER   SIZES    ARE    MOUNTED    ON    1-INCH    ARBORS,    AND    THE    SIX    LARGER 
SIZES  ON    If -INCH  ARBORS.       ALL  OTHER  DIMENSIONS  ARE  UNIFORM. 


General  Tool  System.  209 

SECOND.  The  development  and  application  of  special  tools,  jigs,  de- 
vices and  facilities  that  would  lighten  the  labor  of  the  men  and  increase 
their  output  capacity,  thus  acting  as  an  almost  inseparable  adjunct  to 
the  introduction  of  an  individual  effort  system  of  reward. 

THIRD.  The  betterment  of  machines,  including  motors,  shafting, 
pulleys,  etc. 

FOURTH.  To  effect  simultaneously  with  these  results  an  economy 
in  the  excessive  expenditures  for  tools  of  all  kinds,  by  eliminating  waste, 
introducing  more  durable  and  serviceable  types,  and  avoiding  undesir- 
able investments. 

FIFTH.  The  close  and  detail  supervision  of  tools,  machines  and 
methods  in  railroad  work,  as  it  is  found  by  Fred  W.  Taylor  to  be,  in 
commercial  work,  an  indispensable  factor  of  shop  betterment  and  in- 
dividual labor  reward ;  it  is,  moreover,  possible  to  effect  many  cost  re- 
ductions by  the  methods  alone,  irrespective  of  the  labor  stimulus,  as 
in  the  case  of  cylinder  and  eccentric  drilling  jigs  and  other  jigs. 

This  involved  the  development  and  manufacture  of  many  classes  of 
tools  as  indicated  in  the  following  synopsis: 

1. — General  tools  and  devices  for  use  generally  over  a  large  part  of 
the  work  and  in  almost  all  shops,  including : 

a  Three  sizes  of  bevel  gear  angle  device  for  getting  into  restricted  quarters 
with  an  air  motor.     See  Fig.  112. 

6  High-speed  flat  drill  chucks,  No.  5  Morse  taper  shank. 

c  Knuckle  joint  reamers. 

d  Universal  joints  for  reaming  in  restricted  quarters. 

e  Standard  punches,  stocks  and  couplings. 

/  Standard  worm-driven  air  hoist.     Fig.  113. 

g  Standard  blacksmith  tools.     Illustrated  by  flatter  shown  in  Fig.  114. 

h  Standard  rivet  snaps. 

i  Standard  high-speed  lathe,  planer  and  boring  tools. 

k  Various  standard  taper  reamers  for  erecting  work,  such  as: 

Standard  taper  reamers  for  blade  pins  used  on  all  standard  classes  of 
engines,  thus  making  it  possible  to  manufacture  blade  pins  on  an  auto- 
matic machine. 
Standard  taper  knuckle-joint  pin  reamers  used  on  all  classes  of  engines, 

reducing  the  number  of  reamers  in  each  shop  to  only  four. 
Standard  taper  link  motion  pin  reamers.  Standardizing  the  taper  on 
all  link  motion  pins  of  all  engines  will  not  only  reduce  the  number  of 
reamers  at  each  point  to  a  minimum,  but  will  make  it  possible  to  con- 
centrate the  manufacture  of  pins  at  a  central  point,  supplying  all  out- 
side points  on  requisitions. 

Standard  crosshead  reamers.  The  taper  on  piston,  crosshead,  and  wrist 
pin  fits  was  standardized  for  all  classes  of  engines  on  the  system,  re- 
ducing the  number  of  reamers  to  only  nine,  as  shown  in  Fig.  115. 


210  Betterment  Briefs. 

Standard  reamers  for  reaming  frame  holes  to  standard  sizes,  making  it 
possible  to  concentrate  the  manufacture  of  finished  engine  bolts  for 
the  system  at  Topeka,  thus  using  the  automatic  bolt  machine  to  its 
full  capacity. 

Besides  these,  nine  special  standard  ball-joint  reamers,  with  inserted 

blades  diametrically  opposed  but  unevenly  spaced,  were  shipped  to 

the  principal  points  on  the  system  in  order  that  a  standard  radius 

might  be  made  on  all  steam  pipes  on  engines  passing  through  the  shops. 

2. — Special  devices,  such  as  mandrels  and  chucks,  to  facilitate  the 

machining  of  various  classes  of  work. 

3. — Jigs — attachments  to  machines  for  the  economical  production 
of  various  kinds  of  work. 

4. — Templets  and  jigs,  to  obviate  the  necessity  of  laying  out  work. 
Includes  jigs  and  templets  for: 

a  Drilling  steam-chest  stud  holes. 
b  Drilling  cylinder  stud  holes. 

c  Drilling  cylinder  saddles,  cylinder  heads,  valve-chamber  heads,  spiders, 
follower  plates,  eccentric  straps,  steam-pipe  elbows,  packing  glands. 
d  Laying  off  driving-box  brasses. 
e  Drilling  flue-roller  casings. 
5. — Special  machines: 
a  Centering  machine. 

b  Snap  ring  packing  ring  milling  machine. 
c  Crank  axle  pin  turning  machine. 
d  Complete  reconstruction  of  cylinder  boring  machine,  as  shown  in  Fig.  116. 

6. — Machine  improvements: 

a  Speeding  up  line  and  countershafts. 

b  Pulleys  enlarged. 

c  Wider  driving  cones  applied. 

d  Larger  feed  cones  and  gears. 

e  Use  of  bronze  worms. 

/  Steel  gears  and  pinions. 

g  Increase  in  size  of  motors  for  motor  drives. 

h  Standard  abrasive  wheel  stands.     Fig.  117 
7. — High  speed  milling  cutters  and  gang  cutters: 

a  For  heavy  production  work  on  shoes  and  wedges. 

6  Cutters  with  inserted  teeth  for  side-rod  channels,  eccentrics,  eccentric 
straps,  etc. 

c  For  small  accurate  work  on  flanging  dies,  MCB  tire  and  knuckle  gauges, 
tire  finishing  tools. 

The  general  tool-room  at  Topeka  is  equipped  to  handle  tool  work 
of  eveiy  description,  having  all  the  facilities  and  labor-saving  devices 
_  ,  .  and  methods  that  have  proven  really  efficient.  Examples 

Production        of  lessened  costs  of  production  under  the  new  system,  with 
Costs.  improved  quality  of  output,  may  be  given. 


General  Tool  System. 


211 


Betterment  Briefs. 


FIG.  117. — STANDARD  ABRASIVE  WHEEL  STANDS  FINISHED  IN  TOOL-ROOM  AT 
TOPEKA,  AND  IX  GENERAL  USE  IN  ALL  SHOPS  ON  THE  SYSTEM. 


General  Tool  System. 


213 


§ 


II 

s 
ofcj, 


214 


Betterment  Briefs. 


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General  Tool  System. 

Turning  flue-roller  pins,  former  day's  output,  8  in  10  hours;  present  output, 
46  in  10  hours. 

Milling  a  28V'  reamer,  complete,  former  time,  7  hours;  present  time,  3.2  hours. 

Forging  blacksmith  flatter  under  steam  hammer,  former  cost,  24c.;  present 
cost,  13c. 

Another  new  departure  in  railroad  practice  is  shown  in  Fig.  118;  this 
is  a  special  tool-hardening  room  equipped  with  a  gas  furnace  and  an- 
nealing ovens,  water,  oil  and  air  baths,  and  all  facilities  for  the  pro- 
duction of  perfect  tools  without  failure.  The  tempera- 
ivr°°h  **ar(*en*n£  tures  for  exactly  uniform  product  are  determined  by  an 
electric  pyrometer,  and  not  by  color,  thus  eliminating  all 
chance  of  error.  This  room  is  adjacent  to  the  manufacturing  tool-room 
and  the  work  is  directly  under  the  supervision  of  the  general  tool  fore- 
man. 

The  general  storehouse  stock  of  standard  tools  is  an  indication  of 
the  economy  and  advantage  incident  to  the  policy  of  centralized  stand- 
ard duplicate  manufacture  of  railway  tools,  instead  of  the  general  prac- 
tice of  each  local  shop  manufacturing  individually  from 
Standard  Tools  individual  varying  and  special  designs.  Under  the  new 
policy  not  only  are  the  tools  more  perfectly  designed  and 
built,  and  more  cheaply,  but  the  needs  of  all  shops  are  served  more 
promptly  and  efficiently  by  the  finished  stock  at  the  general  storehouse, 
a  stock  which  is  much  smaller  than  would  be  needed,  were  each  local 
shop  to  protect  its  own  requirements. 

The  foregoing  covers  in  a  general  way  the  mechanical  features  of 

the  tool  system,  as  carried  out  in  successful  practice.     In  order  to  make 

the  system  effective,  and  maintain  an  efficient  but  minimum  stock  of 

tools  at  all  shops,  a  tool-stock  book  is  provided.     The 

I*ooli  T>    i         sample  page  of  this  book,  illustrated  in  Fig.  119,  shows 
Stock  Book. 

the  arrangement  of  columns  for  keeping  a  record  of  tools 
on  hand  and  on  order,  by  months.  The  book  is  ruled  so  that  a  double 
page  contains  the  record  for  a  fiscal  year,  thus  providing  a  perpetual 
inventory. 

On  the  first  of  each  month  all  books  are  sent  to  Topeka,  along  with 
the  monthly  requisition  for  the  tools  required.  The  books  are  then 
checked  up  with  the  requisition  and  immediately  returned.  Requi- 
sitions for  tools  are  made  once  each  month.  A  direct  supervision  over 
each  tool-room  of  the  system  is  thus  obtained  and  the  maintenance  of 
the  tool-room  equipment  is  not  left  to  the  individual  judgment  of  each 
tool-room  foreman.  This  method  has  not  only  kept  down  the  stock  of 


216  Betterment  Briefs. 

tools  to  a  minimum,  but  greatly  increased  the  efficiency  of  every  tool- 
room on  the  system. 

The  methods,  organization  and  details  of  operation  of  the  tool  sys- 
tem have  been  covered  in  a  bulletin  issued  by  the  assistant  superintend- 
ent of  motive  power.     This  bulletin  is  posted  in  all  shops 

i>001 1  «  of  the  system  for  the  instruction  of  both  foremen  and 

Regulations.  * 

workmen.     By  this  means  all  concerned  are  made  familiar 

with  the  rules  and  regulations  of  the  tool  system,  and  the  cooperation 
which  naturally  follows  has  greatly  increased  the  efficiency  of  tools  and 
tool-rooms.  The  bulletin  referred  to  is  as  follows : 

TOOL  REGULATIONS. 

Proper  and  economical  work  depends  upon  the  tools  used,  the  condition  in 
which  they  are  kept,  and  their  availability  for  service  when  needed.  System 
must  be  used  in  the  care  and  distribution  of  tools,  so  that  excessive  amounts  of 
them  will  not  be  accumulated,  and  so  that  expensive  tools  will  not  be  kept  idle 
in  one  place  when  they  are  needed  in  another;  system  must  be  used  in  the  stand- 
ard design  of  tools  and  methods  of  doing  work  adopted,  so  that  the  work  may 
be  properly  and  economically  done. 

With  these  objects  in  view,  all  decisions  as  to  designs  of  tools,  jigs,  special 
devices,  etc.,  and  as  to  methods  of  doing  work,  will  be  made  after  reference  through 
the  office  of  Assistant  Superintendent  Motive  Power,  at  Topeka;  all  suggestions 
as  to  changes  in  methods  and  all  ideas  as  to  changes  in  design  of  tools,  devices, 
etc.,  or  as  to  new  forms  of  tools  or  new  jigs  and  devices,  must  be  submitted  to  that 
office  in  duplicate,  and  receive  the  approval  of  the  Assistant  Superintendent  Mo- 
tive Power,  before  they  can  be  put  into  effect  or  be  adopted.  This  is  necessary, 
as  often  ideas  and  methods  are  developed  at  considerable  expense  in  one  place, 
when  they  have  been  already  tried  and  proven  unsatisfactory  elsewhere.  This 
useless  expense  should  be  avoided.  Recommendations  may  be  made  either 
through  the  regular  channels,  or  directly  by  the  men. 

A  system  for  checking  tools  out  from  the  tool-room,  checking  them  up  in  the 
tool-room,  and  inspecting  them  while  out  of  the  tool-room,  has  been  developed 
from  the  best  practice  in  use  at  first-class  shops,  and  will  be  thoroughly  installed 
in  all  tool-rooms  on  this  system. 

This  tool  system  will  comprise  the  following  features : 

A.  Perpetual  or  continuous  inventory  will  be  had  of  all  tools,  machines, 

and  devices  of  all  sorts  at  each  shop,  showing  location  of  tool,  whether 
assigned  to  tool-room  stock  or  to  the  permanent  use  of  an  individual 
man  or  gang. 

B.  Uniform  aluminum  checks  of  special  design,  six  to  each  man,  will  be 

furnished  from  Topeka  for  each  shop,  indicating  the  shop  and  the 
block  number  of  the  mechanic  to  whom  issued;  these  checks  will 
be  issued  only  to  such  men  as  require  to  call  on  the  tool-room  for 
tools ;  Topeka  will  be  called  on  for  such  checks  as  are  required  from 
time  to  time,  which  will  be  forwarded  by  railroad  mail. 


General  Tool  System. 


217 


(Form  2026  stMdirt.) 

Santa  Fe. 

IN  ALL-CASES  WHERE  TOOLS  ARE  LOST.  BROKEN  OR  DAMAGED,  THIS  CARD  MUST  BE  FILLED.  OUT. 

TOOL  BREAKAGE  CLEARANCE. 

i ONLY  ONE  TOOL  TO  EACH  CARD.)  Cheek  Her* 

Worn  Out 


No, 


has 


(SHOP  LETTER,  NUMlitK   AND  NAMB.J 


(<UVS  FULL  NAME  OF  TOOL-) 

{. Defective  Material 
Accident 
.-.,...  Jg  no  ranee 
Carelessness 

O.K.  " 

This  card  must  be  signed  by  your  Foreman,    .... 
Cfte  of  the  following: 


..size 

INITIAL*  BBKX. 


.Damaged 

B,ohen 

Lost 


DATE 


OAN0  FOREMAN. 


TOOL  KEEPER. 


FIG.  120 — TOOL  BREAKAGE  CLEARANCE  CARD.     WHEN  A  TOOL  is   LOST  OK 

BROKEN,  A  CLEARANCE  CARD  PROPERLY  SIGNED  MUST  BE  PRESENTED  AT  THE  TOOL- 
ROOM BY  WORKMAN  TO  OBTAIN  HIS  CHECK  ON  TOOL. 


218 


Betterment  Briefs. 


Santa  Fe 


REPAIRS  AND  RENEWALS  fO  SHOP  MACHINERY  AND  TOOLS:   Account  47.     (Replacing  Old  Account  17.) 

AND  CHARGES  TO  POWER  PLANTS,  EXCEPT  ENGINES,  BOILERS  AND  MACHINERY  CHARGEABLE  TO  OTHER  ACCOUNTS. 


SHOPS,  DURING 


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TOTAL. 

r  portable  jack« 


ud  >t  Ux»m«i«  ud  or  shopi  u<» 


uiioB«r7  tnjint.  >nd  boilers  for  furnllhlng  power 


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(11  Hdi%m  ip^.wrr  i 

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!?!  Syd°r,u^c"ndd  «hee"  -portable  Uck.    Portable  rale,  and  ^ing  machine,  used  in  .hop.. 
CoitoThrene-iog  bett.ng  boiler,  anould  be  charged  to  account  16.  'Buildings.  Figure,  ani 

explanation  on  Kparale  .heel  of  each  indindtul  item  convuutmg  charge,  in 


FIG.  121 — FORM  FOR  KEEPING  CHARGES  OF  REPAIRS  AND  RENEWALS  TO  SHOP  MACHINERY 
AND  TOOLS.  THIS  FORM  IS  MADE  OUT  AT  EACH  SHOP  EVERY  MONTH,  AND  SHOWS  THE  VARIOUS 
CHARGES  TO  THE  TOOL  ACCOUNT. 


General  Tool  System. 


219 


220 


Betterment  Briefs. 


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General  Tool  System. 

C.  Standard  tool-lockers  will  be  assigned  to  men  using  tools  as  far  as  prac- 

ticable. 

D.  Standard  tool-kits  for  each  class  of  occupation  will  be  determined  upon 

and  these  kits  will  be  supplied  to  each  man  when  he  enters  the  service, 
he  signing  up  for  same  and  being  held  responsible  therefor;  the  man 
will  also  be  held  responsible  for  the  checks  issued. 

E.  A  regular  weekly  inspection  system  of  all  tools  will  be  inaugurated  as 

rapidly  as  it  can  be  organized. 

In  addition  to  these  general  measures,  the  following  special  regulations  will 
be  in  force: 

1.  No  tools  will  be  issued  from  tool-room  except  for  tool-check. 

2.  No  new  hand-hammers  or  monkey-wrenches  to  be  given  in  exchange 

for  old  ones  unless  accompanied  by  an  order  from  the  gang  foreman 
and  marked  "OK"  by  shop  foreman;  chisels  and  soft  hammers  to 
be  the  only  tools  exchanged  for  new  ones  without  a  written  order. 

3.  No  letters  or  figures  to  be  given  out  in  lots  of  less  than  a  full  set. 

4.  All  tools  out  on  check  must  be  turned  into  the  tool-room  every  Saturday 

night  before  the  tool-keeper  leaves  the  shop.  In  all  cases  where 
tool-checks  remain  on  the  board  over  Sunday,  the  tool-keeper  should 
notify  the  tool-room  foreman  or  the  general  foreman,  and  the  men 
whom  these  checks  belong  to  should  be  required  to  give  an  explana- 
tion for  not  returning  the  tools.  In  some  shops  it  may  be  desirable 
to  check  up  the  tools  daily. 

5.  In  all  cases  of  broken,  or  lost,  or  damaged  tools,  the  tool-check  will  not 

be  returned  until  the  tool  clearance  card  (Fig.  120)  has  been  personally 
signed  by  the  general  foreman  as  per  circular  letter  No.  358. 

6.  In  places  where,  in  addition  to  tools,  the  tool-room  is  used  for  a  sort  of 

shop  sub-store  for  small  engine  supplies,  such  as  cutters,  small  bolts, 
etc.,  the  gang  foreman's  orders  will  be  honored  for  these  supplies. 

7.  The  custody  of  all  high-speed  lathe,  planer,  and  boring-mill  tools  should 

come  under  the  tool-room  foreman,  or  the  man  in  charge  of  the  tool- 
room. A  man  starting  to  work  on  a  machine  requiring  these  tools 
should  be  given  a  set,  and  these  should  be  charged  to  him.  Should 
he  break  one  of  these  tools,  he  will  exchange  it  for  a  new  one  in  the 
tool-room.  The  tool-room  foreman  or  the  tool-man  should  get  a  list 
of  the  number  of  high-speed  tools,  the  list  showing  size  and  style 
now  at  various  machines,  and  the  workmen  should  sign  up  for  them. 

8.  All  air  motors  must  be  returned  to  the  tool-room  every  Saturday  night 

and  be  thoroughly  inspected  and  oiled  before  leaving  the  tool-room 
again.  At  shops  like  Topeka,  Albuquerque,  San  Bernardino  and 
Cleburne,  it  may  be  desirable  to  assign  certain  motors  to  a  gang, 
and  that  this  gang  be  allowed  to  use  these  motors  during  the  week, 
turning  them  into  the  tool-room  on  Saturday  night  for  regular  in- 
spection. All  motors  should  be  numbered  and  a  record  kept  of  what 
gang  they  have  been  assigned  to.  Where  parts  of  motors  are  missing, 
the  motors  should  not  be  accepted  without  authority  of  the  tool- 
room foreman.  It  should  be  the  tool-room  foreman's  duty  to  see 


222  Betterment  Briefs 

that  all  motors  are  regularly  inspected  and  repaired  and  oiled  as  often 
as  necessary,  which,  for  motors  in  service,  should  be  as  often  as  once 
a  week. 

While  the  efficiency  of  tools  and  tool-rooms  is  of  primary  impor- 
tance, expenditures  for  expensive  tools  and  devices  are  not  approved 
unless  there  is  a  direct  need  for  them  and  the  saving  in  production  costs 
is  represented  by  a  satisfactory  return  on  the  investment.  In  order  to 
Record  Form  keep  an  accurate  record  of  the  charges  to  repairs  and  re- 
for  Tool  newals  to  shop  machinery  and  tools,  the  form  shown  in 

Repairs.  pjg    ^l  was  adopted.     The  form  is  arranged  with  nine 

columns,  each  reserved  for  a  different  charge  account  covering  repairs 
and  renewals  to  shop  machinery  and  tools,  and  charges  to  power  plants. 
This  form  is  filled  in  once  each  month  at  all  shops  and  forwarded  to 
Topeka.  An  accurate  check  and  supervision  over  the  tool  account  is 
thus  obtained  and  excessive  expenditures  for  tools  are  eliminated  with- 
out impairing  the  efficiency  of  the  tool  system. — American  Engineer 
and  Railroad  Journal,  June,  1908. 


RAILROAD  SHOP  TOOL-ROOMS. 

EDITORIAL  COMMENT  BY  AMERICAN  ENGINEER  AND  RAILROAD  JOURNAL,  JUNE,  1908. 

The  best  trained  and  equipped  army  in  the  world  would  be  seriously  handi- 
capped if  supplied  with  poor  ammunition.  The  tool-room  in  the  railway  shop 
corresponds  to  the  ammunition  for  an  army.  One  of  the  most  efficient  and  best 
managed  railroad  shop  tool-rooms  is  at  the  Topeka  shops  of  the  Santa  Fe.  The 
small  tools  for  the  entire  system  are  designed  and  manufactured  there,  and  a  tool 
department,  under  the  direction  of  the  assistant  superintendent  of  motive  power, 
not  only  has  this  in  charge,  but  also  looks  after  the  supply,  use  and  maintenance 
of  all  the  small  tools  and  machine-tool  equipment  on  the  system.  Probably  no 
other  railroad  has  given  as  much  care  and  attention  to  this  subject.  The  general 
features  of  this  tool  system  are  considered  on  page  239  of  this  issue  of  the  Journal. 


LOCOMOTIVE  REPAIR  COSTS. 


COMPARISONS  between  costs  of  locomotive  repairs  on  different 
railroads  are  valuable  only  as  they  reflect  the  general  tendencies 
from  year  to  year  rather  than  the  existing  differences  in  cost. 
The  cost  of  locomotive  repairs  is  influenced  by  a  number  of  factors,, 
namely:    (1)  Size  of  locomotive,  (2)  cost  of  labor,  (3)  cost  of  material. 
(4)  operating  conditions,  (5)  shop  methods  and  facilities. 

General  ^\\  of  these  factors  bear  an  intimate  relation  to  locomotive 

Considerations. 

repair  costs  and  each  must  be  considered  when  making 

cost  comparisons  either  from  year  to  year  on  the  same  road  or  between 
reports  of  separate  companies. 

A  close  investigation  of  conditions  is  always  necessary  before  accept- 
ing cost  figures  as  statements  of  real  facts,  or  as  a  mirror  reflecting  the 
true  elements  that  contribute  to  the  results  shown.  This  is  especially 
true  when  comparing  costs  of  locomotive  repairs  on  the  Santa  Fe  for 
the  past  few  years,  as  the  figures  given  in  no  way  indicate  the  higher 
efficiency  maintained  in  locomotive  repairs  as  compared  with  five  years 
ago. 

The  annual  reports  of  the  road  for  recent  years  give  the  cost  of  loco- 
motive repairs  in  cents  per  engine-mile  as  follows:  1903,  8.67  cents; 
1904,11.34;  1905,12.56;  1906,9.54;  1907,  9.40.  It  will 

Conf^rison  1:>e  °^serve<^  that  the  cost  of  rePairs  was  -73  cent  per  en- 
gine-mile higher  in  1907  than  in  1903.  This  is  an  increase 
of  8.4  per  cent.  Considering  simply  the  cost  of  repairs,  this  represents 
a  considerable  increase  in  expense,  which  might  appear  as  retrogressive, 
but  an  investigation  of  conditions  gives  an  entirely  different  aspect  to 
this  result. 

In  the  five-year  period  ending  1907,  locomotives  on  the  Santa  Fe 
have  increased  in  number  from  1,309  to  1,791,  a  total  of  482,  or  37  per 
cent.  Among  the  principal  types  of  locomotives,  included  in  this  num- 
ber, there  may  be  mentioned : 

85  Santa  Fe  type 117  tons  on  drivers* 

56  Prairie  type 87     "       " 

67  Pacific  type 75     "       " 

102  Atlantic  type _50     "       " 

Total,    310  Average,  82  tons  on  drivers.  » 

(223) 


Betterment  Briefs. 

In  1903  the  average  weight  of  locomotives  on  drivers  was  46  tons. 
Considering  only  the  heavy  power  noted  above  it  will  be  observed  that 
Increase  in  31^  locomotives  having  an  average  weight  of  82  tons  on 
Weight  of  drivers  were  added  to  the  equipment  in  five  years.  This 
Power.  number  is  equal  to  25  per  cent  of  the  total  number  owned 

in  1903,  and  is  made  up  of  locomotives  having  a  78  per  cent  greater 
average  weight  on  drivers  than  the  average  locomotive  of  1903. 

The  records  of  repair  costs  of  individual  locomotives  for  the  past 
few  years  show  that  this  item  is  proportional  to  the  weight  of  locomo- 
tives, other  conditions  being  equal  or  constant.  On  this  basis,  the  re- 
pairs for  the  310  locomotives  designated,  at  the  prevailing  cost  in  1903 
of  8.67  cents  per  engine-mile,  would  amount  to  15.43  cents  per  engine- 
mile;  or  if  these  310  locomotives  were  added  to  the  equipment  in  1903, 
the  total  number  of  locomotives  would  have  been  increased  25  per  cent, 
with  a  total  average  repair  cost  of  10.38  cents  per  engine-mile.  The 
rate  in  1907  for  repairing  this  same  class  of  power  was  9.40  cents  per 
engine-mile,  which  is  .98  cent  or  9.1  per  cent  less  than  the  cost  of  re- 
pairs in  1903  under  the  same  conditions,.  These  figures  show  clearly 
that  in  spite  of  higher  labor  and  material  charges  the  cost  of  locomotive 
repairs  per  engine-mile  is  steadily  decreasing  and  is  approximately  10 
per  cent  lower  than  in  1903. 

While  locomotive  repairs  in  cents  per  engine-mile  are  generally  ac- 
cepted as  a  basis  for  cost  comparison  on  account  of  the  accessibility  of 
the  records  from  which  the  figures  can  be  compiled,  a  more  accurate 
method  is  based  upon  a  system  of  locomotive  road-units.  The  road-unit 
adopted  by  the  Santa  Fe  is  defined  as  follows:  "The 
weignt  of  locomotive  on  drivers  in  pounds,  multiplied  by 
the  engine  mileage  between  consecutive  shoppings  cost- 
ing $500  or  over  divided  by  100,000,000."  Dividing  maintenance  ex- 
pense by  the  road-unit  gives  the  cost  of  repairs  per  road-unit,  which  is 
a  comparable  quantity,  for  locomotives  under  all  conditions  of  service. 
The  accompanying  diagram,  Fig.  124,  illustrates  in  a  graphical  manner 
the  reduction  in  locomotive  repair  costs  per  road  unit  in  the  year  1906 
as  compared  with  the  year  1905.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  cost  per 
road-unit  for  the  entire  system  in  1905  was  $101,  which  in  1906  was  re- 
duced to  $76  for  freight  and  $66  for  passenger  locomotives,  or  an  average 
of  $71.  This  represents  a  reduction  in  cost  of  repairs  of  $30,  or  39.4 
per  cent  per  road-unit  in  1906  as  compared  with  1905.  It  is  to  be  re- 
gretted that  the  road-unit  costs  for  1907  are  not  available  for  publica- 


Locomotive  Repair  Costs. 


225 


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Cosf  per  Un'it  in  Dollars. 

FIG.  124 — DIAGRAM  SHOWING  REDUCTION  IN  LOCOMOTIVE  REPAIR  COSTS  PER 
ROAD-UNIT  FROM  THE  YEARS  1905  TO  1906. 


226 


Betterment  Briefs. 


19 

03 

19 

O4 

19 

0£ 

19 

06 

19 

07 

joo           too          900           r 
Cosfofftt, 

W              1500    1650     MOO    & 

oa/rs  in  Dol/ars. 

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FIG.  125 — DIAGRAM  SHOWING  THE  REDUCTION  IN  REPAIR  CHARGES  PER  LOCO- 
MOTIVE FROM  1903  TO  1907. 


Locomotive  Repair  Cost 8.  227 

tion  at  this  time,  as  an  even  greater  reduction  is  shown  than  for  preced- 
ing years. 

Among  the  factors  entering  into  cost  of  locomotive  repairs,  labor  is 
not  only  the  largest  in  point  of  cost  but  also  the  most  important.  Labor 
is  the  one  element  that  is  directly  under  the  control  of  the  railroads. 
While  the  wage  rate  is  more  or  less  a  product  of  commercial  conditions 
it  remains  with  railroad  managements  to  obtain  a  labor  output  com- 
mensurate with  the  price  paid. 

The  cost  of  labor  in  all  branches  of  industry  has  been  steadily  in- 
creasing for  the  past  10  years  or  more.  The  wage  rate  for  railroad 
machinists,  as  given  by  Slason  Thompson,  has  increased  from  $2.23  in 
1897,  to  $2.87  in  1907,  or  29  per  cent.  Unless  an  output 

Increasing  proportional  to  this  increased  labor  charge  is  obtained, 
Cost  of  Labor.  J 

the  cost  of  locomotive  repairs  will  necessarily  mount  up- 
ward even  though  other  conditions  remain  the  same.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  is  possible  to  obtain  lower  production  costs  even  with  higher 
priced  labor  by  the  application  of  scientific  methods.  This  has  been 
strikingly  illustrated  on  the  Santa  Fe  in  the  past  five  years.  That  the 
same  proportional  increase  in  wages  has  applied  to  skilled  mechanics 
on  the  Santa  Fe  as  previously  indicated  for  other  railroads  is  shown  by 
the  following  figures:  Average  wage  per  day  for  the  system  in  1903, 
$3.40;  1904,  $3.60;  1907,  $3.88. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  rate  in  five  years  has  increased  48  cents 
per  day,  or  14.1  per  cent,  and  that  the  average  wage  paid  skilled  me- 
chanics on  the  Santa  Fe  is  $1.01  per  day,  or  35  per  cent  greater  than  the 
average  wages  for  this  class  of  labor  as  compiled  by  Mr.  Thompson. 

With  this  high  and  constantly  increasing  rate,  a  correspondingly 
greater  cost  for  locomotive  repairs  might  naturally  be  expected;  but 
the  diagram  in  Fig.  125  shows  that  the  reverse  is  true.  In  1903  the  labor 
charge  per  locomotive  was  $1,950.  In  1907  this  had  been  forced  down 
to  $1,560,  a  decrease  of  $390,  or  24.3  per  cent.  Thus  with  an  increase 
of  14.1  per  cent  in  labor  charges,  the  cost  of  this  labor  for 
locomotive  repairs  was  reduced  24.3  per  cent  in  the  five- 
year  period,  which  is  equivalent  to  a  reduction  of  38.4 
per  cent.  This  is  due  in  some  measure  to  the  individual  effort  system 
of  reward,  as  well  as  to  betterment  methods  and  the  large  increase  in 
the  size  of  locomotives.  The  first,  through  the  payment  of  bonuses 
for  extra  effort,  gave  the  incentive  for  greater  individual  output,  and 
the  second  equipped  the  shops  with  facilities  whereby  each  man's  out- 
put was  limited  only  by  his  own  endeavor. 


228  Betterment  Briefs. 

Referring  to  the  diagram  in  Fig.  125  it  will  be  noted  that  the  cost  of 
labor  for  repairs  in  1905  was  $2,300  per  locomotive,  or  $740  higher  than 
in  1907.  In  1904,  156  locomotives  of  the  largest  size  were  added  to  the 
equipment  which  necessarily  came  in  for  repairs  the  following  year. 
Labor  conditions  were  also  very  unsettled.  Late  in  1904  the  better- 
ment work  was  inaugurated  along  with  the  individual  effort  system,  so 
that  the  principal  development  work  took  place  in  1905.  The  workings 
of  the  new  organization  from  that  time  on  are  shown  clearly  by  the  dia- 
gram. 

Next  in  importance  to  the  labor  charge  in  locomotive  repairs  is  the 
item  of  material.  For  the  past  10  years  there  has  been  an  upward  tend- 
ency in  the  cost  of  all  materials  that  enter  into  locomotive  construction. 
With  the  advent  of  the  heavy  power,  now  common  to  the  principal  rail- 
roads, taking  a  greater  amount  of  material  and  at  a  higher  cost,  the 
material  item  has  assumed  proportions  that  is  directly  manifest  in  the 
cost  of  locomotive  repairs. 

As  shown  by  the  diagram  in  Fig.  126,  the  average  material  cost  for 
locomotive  repairs  in  1903  was  $840  per  locomotive.  In  1907  this  ma- 
terial charge  was  $1,147  per  locomotive,  an  increase  of 

of  CMaat8erialC°8t  $307'  or  36<5  per  cent> in  the  C0st  of  material  Purchased 
by  the  Santa  Fe  for  locomotive  repairs.     Considering  the 

items  of  labor  and  material,  it  has  been  shown  that  the  first,  during  the 
five-year  period,  increased  in  cost  14.1  per  cent,  and  the  second,  36.5 
per  cent,  so  that  the  combined  cost  of  labor  and  material  in  1907  rep- 
resents a  figure  50.6  per  cent  above  that  in  1903.  In  the  face  of  this 
enormous  increase  in  cost  of  the  two  principal  items  entering  into  loco- 
motive repairs,  the  cost  of  repairs  per  engine-mile  from  1903  to  1907 
was  reduced  9.1  per  cent,  which  is  substantial  evidence  of  progress  in 
shop  methods  and  locomotive  design. 

Conditions  under  which  locomotives  are  operated  have  a  direct  in- 
fluence on  the  cost  of  repairs.  Thus,  service  in  districts  where  "bad 
water  "  prevails,  results  in  higher  maintenance  charges  for  boilers.  Also, 

diti  th  t  renewa^s  °f  fireboxes  are  much  more  frequent  and  expen- 
Influence  sive  where  oil  is  used  for  fuel  than  where  coal-burning  lo- 

Rcpair  Costs.  comotives  are  used.  Service  in  the  mountains  over  heavy 
grades  is  much  harder  on  a  locomotive  than  on  the  plains,  consequently 
repairs  are  higher  for  the  same  mileage.  All  of  these  factors  enter  into 
the  cost  of  locomotive  repairs  and  should  be  considered  when  making 
cost  comparisons. 


Locomotive  Repair  Costs. 


OJ 

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04 

O£ 

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07 

1 

V?00300400$00600700800900IC 

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Cos  f  of  fiafariaj  in  Ooltars 

FIG.  126 — DIAGRAM  SHOWING  INCREASE  IN  COST  OF  MATERIAL  USED  IN  LOCO- 
MOTIVE REPAIRS  FROM  1903  TO  1907. 


Locomotive  Repair  Costs. 

Locomotives  are  now  operated  on  a  maximum  tonnage  basis.  The 
greater  the  capacity  of  a  locomotive,  the  greater  the  load  it  must  haul.  In 
oil-burning  districts,  the  hauling  capacity  of  a  locomotive  is  much  greater 
than  of  the  same  type  burning  coal,  owing  to  the  greater  evaporative 
efficiency  of  oil.  This  means  that  a  higher  firebox  temperature  is  main- 
tained. The  effect  of  this  high  temperature  is  rapid  deterioration  of 
firebox  sheets,  necessarily  involving  frequent  repairs  and  replacements 
with  high  maintenance  and  repair  charges.  The  extent  of  this  necessary 
firebox  work  on  the  Santa  Fe  largely  arising  from  the  causes  as  outlined 
is  expressed  by  143  new  fireboxes  applied  to  locomotives  in  1907.  This 
is  one  of  the  items  contributing  to  a  higher  cost  of  locomotive  repairs 
that  did  not  exist  under  former  conditions  of  tonnage  rating. 

Another  factor  which  bears  directly  on  locomotive  repairs  is  the  man- 
ner in  which  locomotives  are  handled  on  the  road.  The  wear  and  tear 
on  the  heavy  locomotive  of  today  hauling  tonnage  trains  is  enormous. 
Not  only  is  the  highest  class  of  shop  and  roundhouse  repairs  necessary, 
but  also  the  most  careful  and  expert  handling  on  the  road,  to  obtain 
Locomotive  ^e  recluisite  mileage  from  locomotives  between  shoppings. 
Operation  and  During  the  past  few  years,  when  the  capacity  of  the  rail- 
Repair  Costs.  roacis  was  taxed  to  the  utmost,  all  efforts  were  concen- 
trated toward  moving  the  traffic.  Economy  and  efficiency  were  nec- 
essarily sacrificed  in  the  great  struggle  to  handle  the  business.  Methods 
were  not  questioned  so  long  as  the  traffic  moved.  This  injected  a  new 
spirit  into  the  road  organization  which  might  be  called  " indifference." 
It  is  a  product  of  conditions,  but  nevertheless,  its  existence  is  real  and 
directly  traceable  in  increased  expenses. 

The  last  factor  to  be  considered  as  entering  into  the  cost  of  locomo- 
tive repairs  is  that  of  shop  methods  and  facilities.  It  goes  without  say- 
ing, that  under  the  present  conditions  of  high  wages  of  labor  and  high 
prices  of  material,  the  best  shop  facilities  are  necessary  to  keep  repair 
costs  within  a  conservative  figure.  The  reduction  made  by  the  Santa 
Fe  in  locomotive  repairs  the  past  few  years  is  indicative  of  the  progress 
in  improved  shops,  facilities  and  organization. 

The  wide  publicity  given  the  " Betterment  Methods"  and  " Individ- 
ual Effort  System"  on  the  Santa  Fe  makes  it  unnecessary  to  discuss 
them  at  this  time,  but  they  are  largely  responsible  for  the  steadily  de- 
creasing cost  of  locomotive  repairs  and  renewals. 

In  conclusion,  it  may  be  stated  that  the  cost  of  locomotive  repairs  is 
not  satisfactorily  expressed  in  cents  per  engine-mile.  A  unit  should  be 
used  that  takes  into  account  the  work  done  by  the  locomotive.  An 


232  Betterment  Briefs. 

absolute  value  is  then  given  to  the  figure  showing  the  cost  of  repairs. 
This  is  illustrated  by  Fig.  125,  which  shows  the  actual  reduction  in  repairs 
to  locomotives  based  on  a  road-unit  that  represents  conditions.  The 
present  tendency  toward  higher  locomotive  repair  costs  is  not  on  account 
of  any  deficiency  in  design  of  locomotives  or  maintenance  and  repair 
methods,  but  in  the  ordinary  mile-unit  used  in  expressing  the  cost  of 
repairs. — Railroad  Age  Gazette,  June  19,  1908. 


THE  SQUARE  DEAL  TO  THE  RAILWAY  EMPLOYEE. 

ANNOUNCEMENT  IN  ENGINEERING  MAGAZINE,  JUNE  1,  1907. 

It  is  eight  years  since  H.  F.  L.  Orcutt,  writing  in  these  pages  of  a  contrast 
in  industrial  policies  at  that  time  newly  apparent,  used  the  significant  words: 
"  It  is  economy  as  well  as  humanity  to  plan  factories  in  which  human  life  is  of 
more  account  than  machinery;  into  which  human  beings  will  not  be  driven  by 
hunger,  but  attracted  by  superior  hygienic  surroundings — air,  light,  comfort — 
as  well  as  by  the  most  modern  equipment  for  saving  labor,  increasing  output,  and 
raising  the  standard  of  workmanship  and  wages." 

No  one  movement  in  the  field  of  "  Power  and  Production "  during  the  inter- 
vening period  is  more  striking  than  the  progress  of  this  concept  in  the  belief  and 
the  practice  of  the  foremost  employers.  We  are  glad  that  much  of  the  current 
history  of  the  advance  has  been  written  in  the  Engineering  Magazine.  We  are 
especially  glad  now  to  show  so  brilliant  an  example  of  its  extension  into  a  branch 
of  engineering  activity  which  sometimes  has  not  been  closely  associated  with 
the  idea  of  care  for  the  individual  life.  Mr.  Jacobs's  present  article  is  a  welcome 
demonstration  that  there  are  railway  managers  by  whom  the  "square  deal  to 
the  employee"  is  considered  equal  in  importance  to  the  increase  of  "efficiency  in 
the  railway  machine  shop. — THE  EDITORS. 

IN  the  September  issue  of  The  Engineering  Magazine,  Dr.  Louis  Bell 
sounded  a  note  of  warning  against  the  result  of  the  American 
manufacturing  method — devotion  to  securing  the  largest  output 
of  uniform  character  at  minimum  cost.  He  pointed  out  that  this  made 
automata  out  of  the  operatives  and  discouraged  skilled,  intelligent, 
and  thoroughly  trained  artisans,  to  so  great  an  extent  that  the  quality 
of  the  men  today  was  generally  poor  and  unreliable. 

Much  of  late  has  been  written  of  the  measures  taken  by  manufac- 
turing concerns  to  attract  men  of  high  character  to  their  employ — to 
surround  their  men  with  an  environment  making  toward  integrity, 
sobriety,  and  industry,  and  not  only  to  make  the  lot  of  the  workman  a 
more  agreeable  one,  but  to  reward  him  in  proportion  to  his  efforts  as 
well,  in  order  to  avoid  the  evils  of  "the  American  tendency."  Al- 
though less  has  been  written  regarding  their  treatment  of  employees, 
some  of  the  railroads  have  been  doing  a  work  along  these  lines  unequaled 
in  depth  of  motive  and  breadth  of  application. 

E.  P.  Ripley,  president  of  the  Santa  Fe  system,  is  quoted  in  the 
Chicago  Record-Herald  of  January  5,  as  saying : 

"One  of  the  most  serious  conditions  which  this  country  is  facing 

(  233  ) 


234  Betterment  Briefs. 

today  is  the  indifference  and  the  disregard  which  the  employee  has  for  the 
interests  of  the  employer. 

"The  Santa  Fe,"  continued  Mr.  Ripley,  "hopes  to  establish  a  better 
esprit  de  corps  among  its  employees,  and  expects  that  a  liberal  pension 
system  will  have  this  tendency.  We  have  on  this  system  as  much  loy- 
alty as  most  railroads  enjoy,  if  not  more,  but  it  is  not  what  it  should  be. 
The  lack  of  loyalty  among  employees  is  a  condition  from  which  all  cor- 
porations are  now  suffering,  and  it  presents  a  most  serious  problem." 

Railroads  are  the  pioneers  of  civilization  and  commerce  in  America ; 
they  pierce  mountains,  blaze  a  way  through  the  forest,  and  establish 
a  highway  through  the  arid  plains  and  the  desert  regions  of  the  South- 
west. They  are  antenna?  or  feelers,  through  which  human  society 
reaches  out  and  extends  its  domain  over  untrammeled  nature. 

The  hardy  and  adventurous,  the  bold  and  the  wild,  among  our  race, 
become  prospectors,  miners,  ranchers,  or  settlers,  or  they  serve  the 
railroad  which  serves  all.  This  life,  hard  and  rough,  encourages  the 
Fr  ntier  lawless  and  incubates  the  saloon  and  attendant  social 

Railroad  evils.  It  was  hardly  uncommon  in  a  frontier  town  to 

Conditions.  gn(j  everv  third  house  a  saloon, -and  to  their  temptations 
the  railroader,  because  of  his  extremely  unsettled  and  nervous  life, 
is  especially  subject.  For  instance,  in  one  desert  town  there  used  to 
arrive  each  month  on  pay-day  morning,  from  a  large  Pacific  coast  city 
about  twelve  hours  distant,  a  number  of  detrimentals  and  gamblers 
who  spent  the  next  few  days  shearing  their  victims. 

To  combat  the  evils  of  the  saloon  and  to  encourage  men  of  the  su- 
Work  of  perior  class,  with  families  or  without,  one  Western  road, 

Santa  Fe  in  the.  Santa  Fe,  has  gone  extensively  into  the  construction 
Conditions  anc^  maintenance  of  reading  rooms,  recreation  halls,  hos- 
of  Men.  pitals  and  company  cottages,  and  of  parks  and  pleasure- 

grounds  around  the  stations,  shops,  and  offices. 

A  station  called  "The  Needles,"  on  the  banks  of  the  lower  Colorado 
river,  in  the  heart  of  the  Arizona-California  desert  (the  haunt  of  the 
Mojave  Indian),  about  one  hundred  miles  southeast  of  Death  Valley, 
being  a  shop  and  division  point,  was  typical  of  severe  conditions.  It 
was  said  that  the  railroader's  experience  was  not  complete  until  he 
had  spent  some  time  there;  that  a  machinist  who  could  hold  on  for 
three  months  would  be  promoted  to  master  mechanic.  The  summer 
heat  is  intense,  yet  notwithstanding  these  severe  conditions  the  climate 
is  salubrious,  and  in  winter,  ideal. 

The  company  has  built  at  this  point,  without  regard  to  expense,  one 
of  its  finest  recreation  halls,  in  the  mission  style;  a  hospital  is  main- 


FIG.  127 — EXAMPLES  OF  SANTA  FE  METHODS  IN  MAKING  AN  ATTRACTIVE  EN- 
VIRONMENT FOR  THEIR  EMPLOYEES.  THE  UPPER  VIEW  IS  OF  THE  SHOP  YARDS 
AND  OFFICES  AT  THE  NEEDLES;  THE  GOLD-FISH  BASIN  HAS  AN  UMBRELLA  COVER 
TO  PROTECT  THE  FISH  FROM  THE  GLARING  SUN.  THE  LOWER  VIEW  IS  OF  A  STATION 
PARK  AT  A  DESERT  POINT. 


236 


Betterment  Briefs. 


Square  Deal  to  Railway  Employee. 


237 


FIG.  129 — TYPICA^  READING-ROOMS,  PROVIDED  BY  THE  SANTA  FE  ROAD  FOR 
EMPLOYEES.  THE  UPPER  ONE  IS  IN  ARIZONA,  THE  LOWER  AT  RICHMOND,  CAL. 
THERE  ARE  OTHERS  AT  LA  JUNTA,  COLO.,  AT  RATON,  N.  M.,  AND  ELSEWHERE, — 

ABOUT  TWENTY  ALTOGETHER. 


^    Q 


II 


I" 


a  B 

H    8 


Square  Deal  to  Railway  Employee. 


239 


FIG.  131 — DIVISION  OFFICES  AT  THE  NEEDLES,  SHOWING  WIDE  PORCHES  AND 
EAVES  FOR  PROTECTION  FROM  THE  DESERT  HEAT. 


'  FIG.    132 — READING-ROOM  FORMERLY  AT  THE   NEEDLES,   CALIFORNIA.     RE- 
PLACED BY  THE  FINE  STRUCTURE  SHOWN  IN  FlG.  130  AND  IN  FOLLOWING  PICTURES. 


240 


Betterment  Briefs. 


FIG.  133 — PORTAL  OF  THE  SANTA  FE  RECREATION  HALL  AT  THE  NEEDLES. 


FIG.  134 — IN  THE  NEEDLES  RECREATION  HALL.     THE  UPPER  VIEW  is  THE  WEST 
PORTICO;    THE  LOWER  is  THE  UPPER  VERANDA  AND  ROOF  GARDEN. 


Betterment  Briefs. 


FIG.  135 — Two  VIEWS  OF  THE  INNER  COURT  AND  FOUNTAIN,  THE  SANTA  FE 
RAILWAY'S  RECREATION  HALL  FOR  EMPLOYEES  AT  THE  NEEDLES,  CAL. 


Square  Deal  to  Railway  Employee.  243 


Fia.  136 — GYMNASIUM  AND  BILLIARD-ROOM,  NEEDLES  RECREATION  HALL, 


244 


Betterment  Briefs. 


FIG.  137 — SWIMMING-POOL  AT  THE  RAILROAD  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  TOPEKA. 


FIG.  138 — SHOP  YARDS  AT  THE  NEEDLES,  SHOWING  THE  EFFORTS  OF  A  PRO- 
GRESSIVE AND  BROAD-MINDED  MASTER  MECHANIC  IN  MAKING  THE  SURROUND- 
INGS FOR  EMPLOYEES  AS  ATTRACTIVE  AS  POSSIBLE.  THE  LOWER  VIEW  SHOWS  THE 
BEGINNING  OF  THE  IMPROVEMENTS,  AND  THE  UPPER  VIEW  THE  YARDS  AS  THEY  ARE 
TODAY.  FROM  THE  PROGRESSIVE  APPLICATION  OF  BETTERMENT  PRINCIPLES  IN  HIS 
WORK  AND  DEALINGS  WITH  MEN,  THIS  MAN  HAS  BEEN  ADVANCED  TO  THE  HIGHEST 
MECHANICAL  OFFICE  OF  A  GREAT  RAILWAY  SYSTEM. 


Betterment  Briefs. 


FIG.  139 — THE  WRITING-ROOM  AND  THE  READING-ROOM  IN  THE  NEEDLES  REC 
REATION  HALL. 


Square  Deal  to  Railway  Employee.  247 

tained,  parks  have  been  grown,  the  shop  grounds  have  been  beautified, 
and  cottages  have  been  built.  At  other  points  where  the  conditions 
are  severe,  similar  measures  have  been  taken,  as  at  Winslow,  Arizona, 
and  at  La  Junta,  Colorado. 

In  all  the  principal  cities  along  the  railway,  hospitals  are  maintained ; 
each  employee,  from  laborer  to  the  higher  officials,  pays  a  small  monthly 
sum  (from  25  cents  to  $1)  to  the  hospital  association,  the  aggregate 
amounting  to  about  $20,000  a  month.  Some  of  the  trustees  of  the  asso- 
ciation are  officials  of  the  company,  while  others  are  employees.  These 
E  1  ees'  trustees  devote  any  surplus  receipts  over  expenditures 
Hospital  to  permanent  improvements,  new  buildings,  and  ad- 

Association,  ditional  facilities.  Although  in  this  respect  self-support- 
ing, this  association  has  received  much  substantial  aid  from  the  railroad 
in  the  way  of  donations  to  building  funds,  company  buildings  rent-free, 
and  other  services.  All  officers  and  employees  of  the  association, 
including  surgeons,  receive  transportation  free  while  in  the  company's 
service,  the  same  rule  applying  to  injured  and  sick  employees. 

,  The  most  notable  hospital  is  at  Topeka,  where  the  chief  surgeon 
has  his  staff  of  five  surgeons,  about  thirty  nurses,  and  many  other  em- 
ployees. At  this  point  from  fifty  to  one  hundred  patients  are  in  the 
various  wards  all  the  time,  not  only  for  injuries  received,  but  also  for 
Hos  itals  sickness.  Many  serious  operations  are  of  course  per- 

and  Hospital  formed.  There  are  many  private  rooms  for  severe  or 
Service.  special  cases.  The  other  hospitals  render  service  similar 

to  that  at  Topeka,  there  being  about  a  dozen  at  various  points  on  the 
road.  Besides  these  hospitals,  which  aim  to  take  care  of  all  the  cases 
in  their  own  territory,  there  are  several  hundred  physicians  and  sur- 
geons who  devote  all  or  part  of  their  time  to  the  company's  service 
at  various  towns  of  any  size  on  the  road. 

In  the  principal  cities  ambulance  service  is  provided ;  in  the  grounds 
of  the  larger  shops  there  are  emergency  rooms,  and  in 
eacl1  sn°P  department  are  men  instructed  in  the   "first 
aid  to  the   injured,"   regular   classes  being  held  at  the 
company's  hospital. 

Other  railroads  carry  on  the  same  kind  of  good  work,  and  the  time 
will  not  be  far  distant  when  it  is  generally  recognized  that  the  railroad 
management,  their  employees,,  and  the  public,  have  common  interests 
stronger  than  any  differences. 

These  examples  of  the  interest  of  the  railroad  for  its  employees  are 


248  Betterment  Briefs. 

not  along  the  line  of  paternalism,  but  are  in  the  nature  of  an  investment 
in  the  character,  health  and  good-will  of  the  employees. 
Railway  Another  advantage   that  has  been   instituted  is  the 

Pension  pension  system,  and  still  another  of  no  small  importance 

is  the  advantage  of  the  employees  to  get   free   transpor 
tation  for  themselves  and  family  from  time  to  time. 

The  pension  system  is  one  of  the  latest  institutions  established  by 
the  company,  and  while  modeled  on  preexisting  examples,  it  has  been 
introduced  in  the  belief  that  its  terms  are  more  liberal  than  those  of  any 
pension  plan  previously  enforced.  It  is  carried  out  wholly  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  company,  but  under  the  conviction  that  the  employees 
will  show  appreciation  of  it  by  increased  zeal  and  loyalty.  Nearly 
every  employee  has  it  in  his  power  to  benefit  his  employing  company 
by  the  character  of  his  work,  and  his  influence,  or  to  injure  it  by  care- 
lessness or  indifference.  The  establishment  of  the  pension  is  based 
upon  confidence  that  those  whose  future  is  thus  made  safer  will  in  re- 
turn render  the  best  service  of  which  they  are  capable. 

The  general  management  of  the  pension"  system  is  in  the  hands  of  a 
board  of  five  officers  or  employees  designated  by  the  president  of  the 
railway,  and  acting  under  his  general  direction  and  during  his  pleasure. 
This  board  adopts  its  own  rules,  subject  to  revision  by  the  board  of 
direction  or  by  the  president  of  the  railway  company. 

Pensions  may  be  granted  to  any  retired  officer  or  employee  who  has 
served  the  company  continuously  for  fifteen  years  or  more  preceding 
the  date  of  his  retirement,  and  who,  at  the  time  of  retiring,  has  reached 
the  age  of  65  years,  or  who  for  any  cause  incident  to  his  employment 
Rules  of  has  been  permanently  incapacitated  for  the  performance 

Qualification  of  his  regular  duty  and  who  cannot  be  transferred  to 
on>  other  work  which  he  is  still  able  to  perform.  Under  this 
provision  the  construction  is  liberal,  for  in  the  case  of  employees  of 
roads  leased  or  purchased,  the  period  of  service  of  the  employee  is 
construed  to  date  from  the  time  when  he  entered  the  employment  of 
the  road  acquired,  and  not  merely  from  the  time  when  that  road  may 
have  passed  into  the  control  of  the  main  system. 

Further,  pensions  may  not  be  withheld  nor  revoked  simply  because 
the  recipient  may  have  other  means  of  support  or  may  be  engaged 
in  other  business,  if  that  business  is  not  prejudicial  to  the  interests  of 
the  corporation  or  its  auxiliary  companies ;  but  the  pension  board  may 
deny,  revoke,  or  withhold,  a  pension  allowance  to  any  employee  if  he 


Square  Deal  to  Railway  Employee.  249 


FIG.    140 — THE  SWIMMING-POOL  AND  THE    BOWLING-ALLEYS,   NEEDLES  REC- 
REATION HALL. 


250 


Betterment  Briefs. 


Square  Deal  to  Railway  Employee. 


FIG.  142— MAIN  BUILDING,  ATCHISON,  TOPEKA  &  SANTA  FE  RAILWAY  HOS- 
PITAL ASSOCIATION,  TOPEKA,  KANSAS. 


Betterment  Briefs. 


FIG.  14/3 — ISOLATED  WARD  IN  THE  SANTA  FE  HOSPITAL,  TOPEKA. 


Square  Deal  to  Railway  Employee.  253 


FIG.   144 — WARD  AND  OPERATING-ROOM,  SANTA  FE  HOSPITAL,  TOPEKA. 


254 


Betterment  Briefs. 


FIG.   14,5 — NURSES'  PARLOR  AND  REST-ROOM  FOR  CONVALESCENTS,  SANTA  FE 
HOSPITAL,  TOPEKA,  KANSAS. 


Square  Deal  to  Railway  Employee. 


255 


The  Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  Railway  Company. 


PENSION  DEPARTMENT 


PERSONAL   RECORD  OF  SERVICE 


(Daft). 


J90 


TO  THE  BOARD  OF  PEJfSIOJfS, 

Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  Railway  Company, 

RAILWAY  EXCHANGE.  CHICAGO.  ILL. 

I  per  tonally  make  this  record  of  my  service  with  Tlie  Atchieon.  Topeka <$•  Santa  Fe  Railway  Company, 
and  tender  it  as  a  basis  for  being  placed  on  the  pension  rolls  of  that  Company: 


.Yarn*  in  full 

Employed  at  present  in  the . 
at 


.  Address, 


.  Department 


Present  rate  of  pay  f 

Date  and  place  of  birth 

f resent  age years 


Different  employment!  in  the  service  ol  the  Company  and  duration  ol  each,  with  salary  attached  to  eack  position.    (Ever,  chings  in  the  pile. 
ol  employment,  occupation,  immediate  superior  olHcer  or  rate  ol  pay  to  be  shown  as  a  separate  term.) 


I1 

EOATE 

?MENT. 

WHERE 

RATES 

OF  FAY 

«3 

F»OM 

To 

EMPLOYED. 

AMOUNT 

"" 

1st 

2d 

3d 

4th 

5th 

6th 

7th 

8th 

9th 

10th 

llth 

12th 

13th 

14th 

15th 

16th 

11th 

18th 

19th 

,20th 

FIG.   146 — FORM  FOR  PENSION  APPLICATION  AND  RECORD  OF  SERVICE, 


256 


Betterment  ftriefs. 


FIG.   147 — THE  RAILROAD  Y.   M.  C.  A.  BUILDING,  TOPEKA,   KANSAS. 


Square  Deal  to  Railway  Employee.  257 

The  Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  Railway  Company. 

PENSION   DEPARTMENT 

TO  THE  BOARD  OF  PENSIONS: 

_ who  has  been years  continuously  in  the 

service  of  the  A.  T.  &  S.  F.  Ry.  Co.  and  is  now  employed  as .. 

at _ _ , on  the t ,  reached 

the  age  of  65  years  and  under  the  provisions  of  the  Pension  System  may  be  retired  from  service.     The 
following  statements  respecting  h are  submitted  for  the  information  of  the  Board  of  Pensions: 

(HERC  SHOULD  FOLLOW  *  STATEMENT  OF  THE  EMPLOYE'S  MENTAL  AND  PHYSICAL  CONDITION  AND  AN  EXPLICIT 
RECOMMENDATION  FOR  RETIREMENT  OR  FOR  CONTINUANCE  IN  THE  SERVICE.] 


(IF    RECOMMENDED    FOR    RETIREMENT    GIVE    CAREFULLY    CONSIDERED    STATEMENT   OF   CHARACTER    OF   SERVICE    RENDERED)) 


Does  employe  desire  to  be  retired.' 

Date  when  last  on  duty  if  now  disabled 


Date  to  which  wages  were  paid  if  now  disabled 


Signature Official  Title 

Date ...._  Location 


Respectfully  forwarded  to ~. (Date) _ 

who  is  my  immediate  superior  officer. 

FIG.  148 — FORM  FOR  RECOMMENDATION  OF  AN  EMPLOYEE'S  PENSION  APPLI- 
CATION. 


258 


Betterment  Briefs. 


Square  Deal  to  Railway  Employee.  259 


FIG.  150 — READING-ROOM  IN  THE  RAILROAD  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  TOPEKA,  KANSAS. 


FIG.   151 — SANITARY  WASH-  AND  LOCKER-ROOM,  SANTA  FE  SHOPS,  TOPEKA. 


Square  Deal  to  Railway  Employee.  261 

prove  himself  wholly  undeserving  through  immorality  or  other  mis- 
conduct. 

Pensions  are  not  allowable,  further,  if  the  officer  or  employee  has 
made  or  enforced  any  claim  for  damages  against  the  company  for  in- 
jury or  accident  occurring  within  three  years  of  the  time  when  the  ap- 
plicant is  retired  or  leaves  the  service.  Neither  are  they  allowable  if, 
during  the  fifteen-year  period,  an  applicant  has  been  engaged  in  business 
or  employment  other  than  the  service  of  the  company.  The  fifteen 
years  must  be  continuous,  and  voluntary  withdrawal  for  two  months 
or  more  is  sufficient  to  constitute  a  break;  but  leave  of  absence  duly 
granted,  or  even  suspension  or  dismissal  if  followed  by  reinstatement 
within  one  year,  are  not  regarded  as  interrupting  the  continuity  of 
service. 

The  amount  of  the  pension  is  contingent  upon  three  elements:  (1) 
The  highest  average  monthly  pay  received  by  the  pensioner  during  any 
consecutive  ten  years  of  service ;  (2)  the  number  of  years  he  has  been 
in  the  employment  of  the  company  or  its  auxiliary  companies;  (3) 
the  character  of  the  service  he  has  performed.  The  general  rule  is  that 
Amounts  employees  whose  highest  average  monthly  wage  during 

Granted  for  any  consecutive  ten  years  was  $50  or  less  may  receive  1 J 
ensions.  per  cen^  Q£  ^g  mon^n}y  average  for  each  year  of  service, 
while  employees  whose  pay  exceeded  $50  per  month  may  be  granted 
for  each  year  of  service  1J  per  cent  on  the  first  $50  and  three-fourths 
of  1  per  cent  on  the  remainder.  A  minimum  of  $20  a  month  and  a 
maximum  of  $75  per  month  are,  however,  arbitrarily  provided.  If  the 
pension  computed  as  above  falls  below  the  lower  figure  it  is  raised  to 
$20,  and  if  it  rises  above  the  higher  figure  it  is  reduced  to  $75.  In  case 
of  exceptionally  long  and  unbroken  service  with  a  first-class  record,  the 
board  of  pensions,  with  the  approval  of  the  president,  may  increase  by 
as  much  as  25  per  cent  any  pension  as  calculated  under  the  preceding 
rule,  provided  always  that  the  total  sum  paid  does  not  exceed  $75  a 
month. 

Application  for  pension  is  made  by  filling  out  a  blank,  of  which  re- 
production is  given  on  page  257.  The  signature  of  the  employing  officer 
must  be  secured  in  approval,  and  the  application  is  then  passed  to  the 
board  of  pensions  through  its  secretary.  In  addition  to  the  informa- 
tion called  for  in  the  application  form,  the  board  may  ask  for  any  further 
particulars  it  thinks  necessary,  and  may  require  a  physical  examination 
by  the  company's  surgeon,  where  the  retirement  is  asked  on  the  ground 
of  incapacity.  The  acknowledgment  of  the  receipt  of  the  application 


262  Betterment  Briefs. 

and  notice  of  the  action  taken  upon  it  is  communicated  to  the  applicant 
through  his  employing  officer. 

The  resolution  of  the  board  of  directors  adopting  the  pension  system 
sets  forth  that  it  has  been  instituted  "  in  order  to  enable  the  employees 
of  the  company  who  have  rendered  long  and  efficient  service  to  retire 
when  advanced  age  makes  relief  from  work  desirable."  This  sense  of 
security  in  old  age  or  in  disability  incurred  in  service  has  proved  else- 
where to  be  one  of  the  greatest  incentives  to  loyalty,  contentment, 
and  faithfulness  in  service.  It  has  as  yet  found  comparatively  little 
application  in  industrial  management  in  the  United  States. 

By  the  institution  of  the  system  the  Santa  Fe  road  seems  to  be  taking 
a  long  step  toward  the  betterment  of  permanent  relations  between  em- 
ployer and  employed.  The  probability  that  it  will  be  fully  justified 
and  repaid  by  the  results  does  not  diminish  in  the  least  the  credit  due 
to  the  far-sightedness  and  the  praiseworthy  effort  of  those  who  are  re- 
sponsible for  its  introduction. — H.  W.  JACOBS,  in  Engineering  Mag- 
azine, June,  1907. 


INDEX. 


Paqe. 

Air  and  Electric  Tools,  Maintenance  of 165 

Ambulance  Service 247 

Angle  Cocks,  Grinding  in 29 

Angle  Iron  Chuck  for  Planer 30 

Applied  Education 59 

Attitude  of  Workmen  Regarding  New  Methods 35 

Ball  Joint  Reamer  for  Steam  Pipes 156 

Belting  Methods,  Modern  Shop 120 

Betterment  Methods  Demonstrated 170 

Bolts,  Engine,  Standard  Tapei1  for 156 

Boring  Car  Wheels 30 

Boring  Mill,  Cylinder,  Rebuilt 124 

Boring  Steel  Tires 30 

Boring  Tool  Supplanted  by  Reamer 88 

Brake  Shoe  Key  Forging  Machine 74 

Bushings,  Cylinder,  Turning 22 

Bushing,  Hydraulic  Extractor  of  Piston  Valve 102 

Bushings,  Valve,  Milling  Parts  of 29 

Canadian  Pacific,  Standard  Locomotives 87 

Car  Wheels,  Boring 30 

Cast  Steel  Tool  Holder  for  Wheel  Lathe 22 

Central  Manufacture  of  Standard  Parts 94 

Central  Manufacture  of  Standard  Tools 100 

Centralized  Manufacture,  Economy  of 77 

Centralized  Manufacture  of  Flue  Rollers. 140 

Centralized  Manufacture  of  Parts 74 

Centralized  Manufacture  of  Tools 142 

Centralized  Manufacture,  Unfavorable  Conditions  for 77 

Chuck,  Angle  Iron,  for  Planer 30 

Chuck  for  Flat  Drills 142 

Chuck  for  Planing  Shoes  and  Wedges 29 

Classification  of  Work  on  Pay  Rolls 165 

College  Men  in  Machine  Shops 59 

Commercial  Manufacturing  Methods 69 

Comparison  of  Old  and  New  Shop  Methods 12 

Cooperation  of  Higher  Officers  Secured 169 

Cooperation  of  Supply  and  Mechanical  Departments 105 

Confidence  of  Men,  Necessity  of 168 

Conservatism  of  Foremen 36 

Conservatism  of  Workmen 35 


264  Index. 

Considerations  Governing  the  Selection  of  Tools 116 

Costs  and  Individual  Effort 184 

Cost  of  Material  for  Locomotive  Repairs 228 

Cost  of  Locomotive  Repairs 106 

Cost  of  Machinery  Maintenance 115 

Cost  of  Manufactured  Material 176 

Cost  of  Labor  for  Locomotive  Repairs 227 

Costs,  Production,  Reduced 210 

Costs,  Surcharge  Item 178 

Crosshead  Jig  for  Babbitting 29 

Crosshead  and  Piston  Fit  Reamers,  Standard 150 

Cylinder  Bushings,  Turning 22 

Cylinder  Boring  Mill,  Rebuilt 124 

Crosshead  Reamer,  Evolution  of 150 

Cylinder  Studs,  Template  for  Laying  Off 78 

Demonstrator,  The  Shop 19 

Design  of  Tools  and  Cost  of  Production 149 

Devices  Needed  in  Erecting  Shops 160 

Distribution  of  Locomotive  Repairs 105 

Double  Tool  Holder  for  Slotter 30 

Drawings  and  Blueprint  Standards 161 

Drill,  High-Speed  Flat 142 

Drilling  Flue  Sheet  Holes 22 

Driving  Boxes,  Planing 30 

Driving  Box  Sling 30 

Driving  Boxes,  Slotting , 30 

Duplicate  Parts  in  Stock 15 

Eccentric  Halves,  Milling 29 

Eccentric  Mandrel  for  Lathe 29 

Eccentrics,  Turning 29 

Economic  Value  of  Commercial  Engineering 59 

Economical  Shop  Production 2} 

Economical  Utilization  of  Tool  Equipment 108 

Economies  in  Standard  Taper  Plug  Taps 140 

Economy  of  Ball  Joint  Reamers 156 

Economy  in  Central  Manufacture  of  Locomotive  Parts 176 

Economy  of  Centralized  Manufacture 77 

Economy  of  Complete  Stock 172 

Economy  in  Rapid  Locomotive  Repairs 106 

Economy  in  Reconstruction  of  Old  Machinery 139 

Economy  of  Standard  Parts  and  Tools 15 

Economy  of  Standard  Reamers 150 

Economy  in  Standardization  of  Small  Tools 139 

Education,  Applied 59 

Efficiency  Record  of  Dry-Pipe  Gang 193 

Efficiency  Record  of  Entire  Shop 193 

Efficiency  Record  of  Good  Workman 184 

Efficiency  Record  of  Poor  Workman 190 


Index.  265 

Efficiency  Record  of  Repair  Track 193 

Efficiency  Record  of  Spasmodic  Workman 190 

Employees'  Hospital  Association 247 

Engineering,  Economic  Value  of  Commercial 59 

Equipment,  Percentage  of  Standard 93 

Erecting  Shop,  Conditions  in 155 

Erecting  Shop,  Devices  Needed  in 160 

Erecting  Work  Devices 159 

Evolution  of  Crosshead  Reamer 150 

Excessive  Stock,  One  Cause  for 172 

Expense  of  Cheap  Supervision 73 

Extended  Piston  Rods,  Finishing 43 

Extravagance  in  Purchase  of  Tools 116 

Finishing  Extended  Piston  Rods 22 

Flue  Hole  Cutter 22 

Flue  Rollers,  Centralized  Manufacture  of 140 

Flue  Sheet  Holes,  Drilling 22 

Foremen,  Conservatism  of 36 

Foremen  With  Ideas,  Value  of 74 

Forging  Machine,  Brake  Shoe  Key 74 

Frontier  Railroad  Conditions 234 

Functions  of  Railways 69 

Functions  of  Tool  Room 145 

Handling  Shop  Orders 161 

Hardening,  Tool,  Methods 215 

High-Speed  Flat  Drill  and  Chuck 142 

High-Speed  Steel,  Increased  Production  From 108 

High-Speed  Steel  and  Machine  Design 131 

High-Speed  Steel  in  Railroad  Shops 19 

High-Speed  Tools  Replace  Carbon  Tools 141 

Holder  for  Wheel  Lathe  Tools 22 

Hospital  Association,  Employees' 247 

Hospitals  and  Hospital  Service 247 

Increase  in  \Veight  of  Locomotives 224 

Increased  Production  from  High-Speed  Steel 108 

Industrial  Track  System  for  Shops 30 

Importance  of  Good  Tools _ 159 

Improper  Selection  of  Machinery 132 

Improved  Equipment  and  Planer  Practice 120 

Improved  Machine  and  Shop  Practice 70 

Improved  Planer  Practice 51 

Improved  Wheel  Lathe  Tools  and  Holder 115 

Individual  Effort,  High  Efficiency  and  Low  Costs 184 

Individual  Effort,  Reward  for 165 

Individual  Effort  System,  Principles  of 167 

Individual  Effort  System,  Results  from 194 

Jig,  Crosshead 29 

Jig  for  Milling  Eccentrics 29 


266  Index. 

Jigs  and  Templates  for  Locomotive  Shops 15 

Jigs  and  Templates,  Use  of 78 

Knuckle- Pin  Hole  Reamers 29 

Lathe  Feeds,  Increased 131 

Lathe  Tools,  Modem 123 

Lathe  Tools,  Old  and  New  Compared 123 

List  of  Locomotive  Standard  Parts 87 

Locomotive  Operation  and  Repair  Costs 231 

Locomotive  Parts,  Economy  in  Central  Manufacture  of 175 

Locomotive  Parts  to  be  Made  in  Central  Shop 177 

Locomotive  and  Parts,  Standardization  of 82 

Locomotive  Repair  Cost 223 

Locomotive  Repairs,  Cost  of 106 

Locomotive  Repairs,  Cost  of  Labor  for 227 

Locomotive  Repairs,  Cost  of  Material  for 228 

Locomotive  Repairs,  Distribution  of 105 

Locomotive  Repairs,  Economy  in 106 

Locomotive  Repairs,  Standardizing 160 

Locomotive  Road-Unit 224 

Locomotive  Standards,  Canadian  Pacific 87 

Locomotive  Standard  Parts,  List  No.  1 87 

Locomotive  Standard  Parts,  List  No.  2 ' 99 

Locomotive  Standards,  Rock  Island 82 

Locomotive  Standards,  Union  Pacific 87 

Locomotives,  Improved  Condition  of 167 

Locomotives,  Increase  in  Weight  of 224 

Machine  Design  and  High-Speed  Steel 131 

Machinery,  Economy  in  Reconstruction  of  Old 139 

Machine  Equipment,  Special 123 

Machinery,  Improper  Selection  of 132 

Machinery  Maintenance,  Cost  of 115 

Machine  Production  Records 30 

Machining  Piston  Valves 22 

Machinery,  Speeding  Up 36 

Machinery,  Surcharge  on 119 

Machine  Tool  Equipment,  Selection  of 1 16 

Machine  Tools  and  High-Speed  Steel 35 

Maintenance  of  Air  and  Electric  Tools 165 

Maintenance  of  Efficient  Working  Stock 171 

Maintenance  Expense  Reduced 167 

Maintenance  of  Standards 16 

Man  Required  for  Shop  Demonstration 36 

Manufactured  Material  Costs 175 

Material,  Reward  for  Saving 165 

Material  Sub-Stores  in  Shops 162 

Material,  Supervision  of  Requisitions  for 181 

Material  Supply  for  Local  Stores 100 

Methods,  Commercial  Manufacturing ....    69 


Index.  267 

Methods  for  Keeping  Down  Stock 81 

Methods,  Open  and  Direct 168 

Mechanical  Officers,  Variation  in  Policy  of 107 

Milling  Eccentric  Halves 29 

Milling  Ports  of  Piston  Valve  Bushings 29 

Modern  Shop  Belting  Methods 120 

Object  of  Betterment  Work 204 

Officers,  Responsibility  of  Higher 43 

Old  Method  of  Raising  Air  Drums 22 

Organization    Shop 51 

Outline  of  Shop  Organization 51 

Outline  of  Tool  System 204 

Parts,  Centralized  Manufacture  of 16 

Parts,  Duplicate  in  Stock 15 

Parts  Reduced  by  Standardization 175 

Parts  to  be  Standardized 87 

Parts  and  Tools,  Economy  of  Standard 15 

Pay  Rolls,  Classification  of  Work  on 165 

Pension,  Amount  Granted 261 

Pension,  Qualifications  for 248 

Pension  System 248 

Percentage  of  Standard  Equipment 93 

Performance  of  Wheel  Lathe 21 

Pins,  Standard  Brake  Rigging 159 

Piston  Fit  and  Crosshead  Reamers 150 

Piston  Rods,  Extended,  Finishing 22 

Piston  Rod  Glands,  Finishing 30 

Planer  Chuck  for  Rod  Brasses 30 

Planer  Improvements 131 

Planer  Practice,  Improved 51 

Planing  Driving  Boxes 30 

Planing  Shoes  and  Wedges 29 

Plugs,  Standard  Washout 156 

Pneumatic  Air  Drum  Hoist 22 

Pneumatic  Tools,  Standard 140 

Possible  Reduction  in  Tool  Account 116 

Possible  Savings  in  Tool  Steel 115 

Practical  Pointers  for  College  Men 60 

Practical  Tool-Room  Methods 15 

Preparations  for  High-Speed  Steel 35 

Principles  of  Individual  Effort  System 167 

Production  Costs  and  Quality  of  Material 189 

Production,  Economical  Shop 21 

Progress,  Conditions  in  Erecting  Shop 155 

Progressive  Shop  Policy 21 

Progressive  Shop  Policy,  Benefits  of 167 

Publicity  of  Methods  by  Lectures 169 

Punches  and  Dies,  Standard .  1 46 


268  Index. 

Qualifications  for  Pension 248 

Railways,  Functions  of 69 

Raising  Air  Drums 22 

Reamer,  Ball  Joint  for  Steam  Pipes 156 

Reamer,  Evolution  of  Crosshead 150 

Reamers,  Standard,  Economy  of 150 

Reamer,  Standard  Knuckle-Pin  Hole 29 

Reamer  Substituted  for  Boring  Tool 88 

Records  and  Reports,  Store  Department 81 

Records  of  Templates  and  Jigs 15 

Records  of  Tools 142 

Reconstructed  Axle  Lathe 136 

Reconstructed  Bolt  Lathe 39 

Reconstructed  Drill  Press 41 

Reconstructed  Planer 131 

Reconstruction  of  Old  Machinery 1 39 

Record  Form  for  Tool  Repairs 222 

Reduced  Production  Costs 210 

Repair  Cost  of  Locomotives 223 

Repair  Costs,  Influence  of  Locomotive  Operation  on 231 

Requisitions,  Returned  When  Not  Filled 181 

Responsibility  of  Higher  Officers ' 43 

Reward  for  Individual  Effort 165 

Reward  for  Saving  Material 165 

Rock  Island  Standard  Locomotives 82 

Roughing  Extended  Piston  Rods 22 

Routing  Work  Through  Shops 160 

Salaries  of  Mechanical  Officers 73 

Saving  in  Jigs  and  Templates 78 

Schedules,  Standard  Efficiency  Shop 199 

Scope  of  Tool  Room '. 20 

Shoes  and  Wedges,  Planing 29 

Shop  Belting,  Modern  Methods  of 120 

Shops,  College  Men  in  Machine 59 

Shop  Crane  Service 30 

Shop  Demonstrator,  The 19 

Shop  Demonstrator,  Value  of 35 

Shops,  Devices  Needed  in  Erecting 160 

Shop  Manufacture  of  Special  Tools 149 

Shop  Methods,  Comparison  of  Old  and  New 12 

Shop  Orders,  Handling 161 

Shop  Output  Increased 168 

Shop  Policy,  A  Progressive 167 

Shop  Practice,  Improved 21 

Shop  Practice  and  Improved  Equipment 120 

Shop  Production,  Surcharge  on 165 

Shop,  Progress  Conditions  in  Erecting 155 

Shops,  Routing  Work  Through 160 


Index.  269 

Shops,  Sub-Stores  in 162 

Sling  for  Driving  Boxes 30 

Slotting  Driving  Boxes 30 

Special  Erecting  Work  Devices 159 

Special  Machine  Equipment 123 

Special  Milling  Records 30 

Special  Tool,  Poor  Selection  of 132 

Speeding  Up  Machinery 36 

Standard  Boiler-Makers'  Tools 140 

Standard  Brake  Rigging  Pins 159 

Standard  Crosshead  and  Piston  Reamers 150 

Standard  Drawings  and  Prints 161 

Standard  Efficiency  Shop  Schedules 199 

Standard  Equipment,  Percentage  of 93 

Standard  Flue  Rollers,  Central  Manufacture  of 140 

Standard  Hand  and  Air  Hammer  Tools 140 

Standard  Knuckle- Pin  Hole  Reamers 29 

Standard  Locomotive  Parts 82 

Standard  Parts  to  be  Finished 94 

Standard  Parts  and  Tools,  Economy  of 15 

Standard  Punches  and  Dies 146 

Standard  Reamers,  Economy  of 150 

Standard  Taper  for  Engine  Bolts 156 

Standard  Taper  Plug  Taps 140 

Standard  Tools  Centrally  Manufactured 140 

Standard  Tools  in  Stock 215 

Standard  Washout  Plugs 156 

Standards,  Maintenance  of 16 

Standards,  Supervision  of 16 

Standardization  of  Air  Tool  Equipment 162 

Standardization  of  Locomotives  and  Parts 82 

Standardization  and  Reduction  in  Number  of  Parts 175 

Standardization  of  Small  Tools 141 

Standardizing  Locomotive  Repairs 160 

Standardizing  Small  Tools,  Economy  in 139 

Stock  Book,  Tool 215 

Stock,  Cause  for  Excessive 172 

Stock,  Complete  Economy  of 172 

Stock,  Duplicate,  in  Stock 15 

Stock,  Methods  of  Keeping  Down 81 

Store  Department,  The  Ideal 171 

Store,  Tool  Rack  for  Central 144 

Storehouse  Records  and  Reports 81 

Stores,  Material  Supply  of  Local 100 

Stores,  Sub-,  in  Shops 162 

Superiority  of  Modern  Tools  and  Methods 12 

Supervision  of  Air  Tools 159 

Supervision,  Expense  of 73 


270  Index. 

Supervision  of  Requisitions  for  Material 181 

Supervision  of  Standards 16 

Supervision  of  Tools  and  Records 142 

Supervision  of  Tools  and  Tool  Steel 19 

Surcharge  Item  Costs 178 

Surcharge  on  Machinery 119 

Surcharge  on  Shop  Production 165 

Taps,  Standard  Taper  Plug 140 

Templates  and  Jigs  for  Locomotive  Work 15 

Templates  and  Jigs,  Records  of 15 

Templates  and  Jigs,  Use  of 78 

Template  for  Laying  Off  Cylinder  Studs 78 

Testing  Triple  Valves 29 

Tires,  Boring  Steel 30 

Tires,  Turning  Coach  Wheel 21 

Tires,  Turning  Driving  Wheel 21 

Tool  Account,  Reduction  in 116 

Tools,  Central  Manufacture  of 142 

Tool  Equipment,  Economical  Utilization  of 108 

Tool-Hardening  Methods 215 

Tool  Holder  for  Wheel  Lathe 22 

Tool  Rack  for  Central  Shops : 142 

Tool  Regulation 215 

Tool  Repairs,  Record  Form  for 222 

Tool  Room  Conditions  in  Railroad  Shops 11 

Tool  Room,  Economical  Limits  of  Manufacture  in 149 

Tool  Room,  Functions  of 149 

Tool  Room,  Jurisdiction 16 

Tool  Room  Methods,  Practical 15 

Tool  Room  Organization 146 

Tool  Room,  Scope  of 20 

Tool  Steel,  Savings  in 115 

Tool  Stock  Book 215 

Tool  System,  A  Modern 19 

Tools,  Central  Manufacture  of  Standard 100 

Tools,  Design  of 149 

Tools,  Economy  in  Standard  Small 139 

Tools,  Extravagance  in  Purchase  of 116 

Tools  and  Holder  for  Wheel  Lathe 115 

Tools,  Importance  of  Good 159 

Tools,  Maintenance  of  Air  and  Electric 165 

Tools  and  Methods,  Superiority  of  Modern 12 

Tools,  Modern  Lathe 123 

Tools,  Shop  Manufacture  of  Special 149 

Tools,  Standard  Boiler-Makers' 140 

Tools,  Standard,  in  Stock 215 

Tools,  Standard  Pneumatic 140 

Tools,  Standardization  of  Air 162 


Index.  271 

Tools,  Standardization  of  Small 141 

Tools,  Supervision  of  Air 159 

Tools  and  Tool  Steel,  Supervision  of 19 

Triple  Valves  Overhauled 29 

Turning  Coach  Wheel  Tires 21 

Turning  Cylinder  Bushings 22 

Turning  Driving  Wheel  Tires 21 

Turning  Eccentrics 29 

Turning  Piston  Valves 22 

Unfavorable  Conditions  for  Centralized  Manufacture 77 

Union  Pacific  Standard  Locomotives 87 

Unit,  Locomotive  Road 224 

Use  of  Jigs  and  Templates 78 

Value  of  Foremen  with  Ideas 74 

Value  of  Modern  Tool  System 19 

Valve  Bushings,  Milling  Ports  of 29 

Valves,  Overhauling  Triple 29 

Valve  Packing  Rings,  Machining 29 

Valves,  Turning  Piston 30 

Variation  in  Policy  of  Mechanical  Officers 107 

Washout  Plugs,  Standard 140 

Wheel  Lathe,  Performance  of 21 

Wheel  Lathe  Tools,  Old  and  New  Compared 115 

Wheel  Lathe  Tools,  Saving  in  New 115 

Wheel  Lathe  Tools  and  Holder 24 


Of  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


SHORT- TITLE  CATALOGUE 

OF    THE 

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1 


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3 


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9 


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Peabody  and  Miller's  Steam-boilers 8vo,  4  00 

Pupin's  Thermodynamics  of  Reversible  Cycles  in  Gases  and  Saturated  Vapors. 

(Osterberg.) 12mo,  1  25 

Reagan's  Locomotives:  Simple,  Compound,  and  Electric.     New  Edition. 

Large  12mo,  3  50 

Sinclair's  Locomotive  Engine  Running  and  Management 12mo,  2  00 

Smart's  Handbook  of  Engineering  Laboratory  Practice 12mo,  2  50 

Snow's  Steam-boiler  Practice. 8vo,  3  00 

Spangler's  Notes  on  Thermodynamics 12mo,  1  00 

Valve-gears 8vo,  2  50 

Spangler,  Greene,  and  Marshall's  Elements  of  Steam-engineering 8vo,  3  00 

Thomas's  Steam-turbines 8vo,  4  00 

Thurston's  Handbook  of  Engine  and  Boiler  Trials,  and  the  Use  of  the  Indi- 
cator and  the  Prony  Brake 8vo,  5  00 

Handy  Tables 8vo,  1  50 

Manual  of  Steam-boilers,  their  Designs,  Construction,  and  Operation  8vo,  5  00 

Manual  of  the  Steam-engine 2vols.,  8vo,  10  00 

Part  I.     History,  Structure,  and  Theory 8vo,  6  00 

Part  II.     Design,  Construction,  and  Operation 8vo,  6  00 

Wehrenfenning's  Analysis  and  Softening  of  Boiler  Feed-water.     (Patterson.) 

8vo,  4  00 

Weisbach's  Heat,  Steam,  and  Steam-engines.     (Du  Bois.) 8vo,  5  00 

Whitham's  Steam-engine  Design 8vo,  5  00 

Wood's  Thermodynamics,  Heat  Motors,  and  Refrigerating  Machines.  .  .  8vo,  4  00 


MECHANICS    PURE   AND    APPLIED. 

Church's  Mechanics  of  Engineering 8vo,  6  00 

Notes  and  Examples  in  Mechanics 8vo,  2  00 

Dana's  Text-book  of  Elementary  Mechanics  for  Colleges  and  Schools  .12mo,  1  50 
Du  Bois's  Elementary  Principles  of  Mechanics: 

Vol.    I.     Kinematics 8vo,  3  50 

Vol.  II.     Statics 8vo,  4  00 

Mechanics  of  Engineering.     Vol.    I Small  4to,  7  50 

Vol.  II Small  4to,  10  00 

*  Greene's  Structural  Mechanics 8vo,  2  50 

James's  Kinematics  of  a  Point  and  the  Rational  Mechanics  of  a  Particle. 

Large  12mo,  2  00 

*  Johnson's  (W.  W.)  Theoretical  Mechanics 12mo,  3  00 

Lanza's  Applied  Mechanics 8vo,  7  50 

*  Martin's  Text  Book  on  Mechanics,  Vol.  I,  Statics 12mo,  1  25 

*  Vol.  II,  Kinematics  and  Kinetics.  12mo,  1  50 

Maurer's  Technical  Mechanics 8vo,  4  00 

*  Merriman's  Elements  of  Mechanics 12mo,  1  00 

Mechanics  of  Materials 8vo,  5  00 

15 


*  Michie's  Elements  of  Analytical  Mechanics 8vo,  $4  00 

Robinson's  Principles  of  Mechanism 8vo,     3  00 

Sanborn's  Mechanics  Problems Large  12mo,      1   50 

Schwamb  and  Merrill's  Elements  of  Mechanism 8vo,     3  00 

Wood's  Elements  of  Analytical  Mechanics 8vo,     3  00 

Principles  of  Elementary  Mechanics 12mo,     1  25 


MEDICAL. 

*  Abderhalden's  Physiological   Chemistry   in    Thirty   Lectures.      (Hall   and 

Defren.) 8vo,  5  00 

von  Behring's  Suppression  of  Tuberculosis.      (Bolduan.) 12mo,  1  00 

Bolduan's  Immune  Sera 12mo,  1  50 

Bordet's  Studies  in  Immunity.     (Gay.) 8vo,  6  00 

Davenport's  Statistical  Methods  with  Special  Reference  to  Biological  Varia- 
tions  16mo,  mor.  1  50 

Ehrlich's  Collected  Studies  on  Immunity.      (Bolduan.) 8vo,  6  00 

*  Fischer's  Physiology  of  Alimentation Large  12mo,  2  00 

de  Fursac's  Manual  of  Psychiatry.     .(Rosanoff  and  Collins.)..  .  .Large  12mo,  2  50 


Hammarsten's  Text-book  on  Physiological  Chemistry.     (Mandel.) 8vo, 

Jackson's  Directions  for  Laboratory  Work  in  Physiological  Chemistry.  .8vo, 

Lassar-Cohn's  Practical  Urinr.ry  Analysis.      (Lorenz.) 12mo, 

Mandel's  Hand-book  for  the  Bio-Chemical  Laboratory 12mo, 

*  Pauli's  Physical  Chemistry  in  the  Service  of  Medicine.      (Fischer.)  ..12mo, 


*  Pozzi-Escot's  Toxins  and  Venoms  and  their  Antibodies.      (Cohn.).  .  12mo, 

Rostoski's  Serum  Diagnosis.     (Bolduan.) 12mo, 

Ruddiman's  Incompatibilities  in  Prescriptions 8vo,  2  00 

Whys  in  Pharmacy 12mo,  1  00 

Salkowski's  Physiological  and  Pathological  Chemistry.     (Orndorff.)  ....8vo,  250 

*  Satterlee's  Outlines  of  Human  Embryology 12mo,  1  25 

Smith's  Lecture  Notes  on  Chemistry  for  Dental  Students 8vo,  2  50 

*  Whipple's  Tyhpoid  Fever Large  12mo,  3  00 

*  Woodhull's  Military  Hygiene  for  Officers  of  the  Line Large  12mo,  1  50 

*  Personal  Hygiene 12mo,  1  00 

Worcester  and  Atkinson's  Small  Hospitals  Establishment  and  Maintenance, 
and  Suggestions  for  Hospital  Architecture,  with  Plans  for  a  Small 

Hospital 12mo,  1  25 

METALLURGY. 

Betts's  Lead  Refining  by  Electrolysis 8vo,  4  00 

Bolland's  Encyclopedia  of  Founding  and  Dictionary  of  Foundry  Terms  used 

in  the  Practice  of  Moulding 12mo,  3  00 

Iron  Founder 12mo,  2  50 

Supplement 12mo,  2  50 

Douglas's  Untechnical  Addresses  on  Technical  Subjects 12mo,  1  00 

Goesel's  Minerals  and  Metals:  A  Reference  Book 16mo.  mor.  3  00 

*  Iles's  Lead-smelting 12mo,  2  50 

Johnson's    Rapid    Methods   for    the   Chemical   Analysis   of   Special    Steels, 

Steel-making  Alloys  and  Graphite Large  12mo,  3  00 

Keep's  Cast  Iron 8vo,  2  50 

Le  Chatelier's  High- temperature  Measurements.     (Boudouard — Burgess.) 

12mo,  3  00 

Metcalf 's  Steel.      A  Manual  for  Steel-users 12mo,  2  00 

Minet's  Production  of  Aluminum  and  its  Industrial  Use.      (Waldo.).  .  12mo,  2  50 

*  Ruer's  Elements  of  Metallography.      (Mathewson.) 8vo,  3  00 

Smith's  Materials  of  Machines 12mo,  1  00 

Tate  and  Stone's  Foundry  Practice 12mo,  2  00 

Thurston's  Materials  of  Engineering.     In  Three  Parts 8vo,  8  00 

Part  I.      Non-metallic  Materials  of  Engineering,  see  Civil  Engineering, 

page  9. 

Part  II.     Iron  and  Steel 8vo,  3  50 

Part  III.  A  Treatise  on  Brasses,  Bronzes,  and  Other  Alloys  and  their 

Constituents 8vo,  2  50 

16 


Ulke's  Modern  Electrolytic  Copper  Refining 8vo,  $3  00 

West's  American  Foundry  Practice 12mo,      2  50 

Moulders'  Text  Book 12mo.     2  50 


MINERALOGY. 

Baskerville's  Chemical  Elements.      (In  Preparation.) 

*  Browning's  Introduction  to  the  Rarer  Elements 8vo,  1  50 

Brush's  Manual  of  Determinative  Mineralogy.      (Penfield.) 8vo,  4  00 

Butler's  Pocket  Hand-book  of  Minerals 16mo,  mor.  3  00 

Chester's  Catalogue  of  Minerals 8vo,  paper,  1  00 

Cloth,  1  25 

*  Crane's  Gold  and  Silver 8vo,  5  00 

Dana's  First  Appendix  to  Dana's  New  "System  of  Mineralogy".  .Large  8vo,  1  00 
Dana's  Second  Appendix  to  Dana's  New  "  System  of  Mineralogy." 

Large  8vo, 

Manual  of  Mineralogy  and  Petrography 12mo,  2  00 

Minerals  and  How  to  Study  Them 12mo,  1  50 

System  of  Mineralogy Large  8vo,  half  leather,  12  50 

Text-book  of  Mineralogy 8vo,  4  00 

Douglas's  Untechnical  Addresses  on  Technical  Subjects 12mo,  1  00 

Eakle's  Mineral  Tables 8vo,  1  25 

Eckel's  Stone  and  Clay  Products  Used  in  Engineering.      (In  Preparation.) 

Goesel's  Minerals  and  Metals:  A  Reference  Book 18mo,  mor.  3  00 

Groth's  Introduction  to  Chemical  Crystallography  (Marshall) 12mo,  1  25 

*  Hayes's  Handbook  for  Field  Geologists 16mo,  mor.  1  50 

Iddings's  Igneous  Rocks , 8vo,  5  00 

Rock  Minerals 8vo,  5  00 

Johannsen's  Determination  of  Rock-forming  Minerals  in  Thin  Sections.  8vo, 

With  Thumb  Index  5  00 

*  Martin's  Laboratory     Guide    to    Qualitative    Analysis    with    the    Blow-  1  50 

pipe 12mo,  60 

Merrill's  Non-metallic  Minerals:  Their  Occurrence  and  Uses 8vo,  4  00 

Stones  for  Building  and  Decoration 8vo,  5  00 

*  Penfield's  Notes  on  Determinative  Mineralogy  and  Record  of  Mineral  Tests. 

8vo,  paper,  50 
Tables  of  Minerals,   Including  the  Use  of  Minerals  and  Statistics  of 

Domestic  Production 8vo,  1  00 

*  Pirsson's  Rocks  and  Rock  Minerals 12mo,  2  5O 

*  Richards's  Synopsis  of  Mineral  Characters 12mo,  mor.  1  25 

*  Ries's  Clays :  Their  Occurrence,  Properties  and  Uses 8vo,  5  00 

*  Ries  and  Leighton's  History  of  the  Clay-working  Industry  of  the  United 

States 8vo,  2  50 

*  Tillman's  Text-book  of  Important  Minerals  and  Rocks 8vo,  2  00 

Washington's  Manual  of  the  Chemical  Analysis  of  Rocks 8vo,  2  00 


MINING. 

*  Beard's  Mine  Gases  and  Explosions Large  12mo,  3  00 

*  Crane's  Gold  and  Silver 8vo,  5  00 

*  Index  of  Mining  Engineering  Literature 8vo,  4  00 

*  8vo,  mor.  5  00 

Mining  Methods.      (In  Press.) 

Douglas's  Untechnical  Addresses  on  Technical  Subjects 12mo,  1  00 

Eissler's  Modern  High  Explosives 8vo,  4  00 

Goesel's  Minerals  arid  Metals'  A  Reference  Book 16mo,  mor.  3  00 

Ihlseng's  Manual  of  Mining 8vo,  5  OQ 

*  Iles's  Lead  Smelting 12mo,  2  50 

Peele's  Compressed  Air  Plant  for  Mines 8vo,  3  00 

Riemer's  Shaft  Sinking  Under  Difficult  Conditions.      (Corning  and  Peele.)8vo,  3  00 

*  Weaver's  Military  Explosive* 8vo,  3  00 

Wilson's  Hydraulic  and  Placer  Mining.     2d  edition,  rewritten 12mo,  2  50 

Treatise  on  Practical  and  Theoretical  Mine  Ventilation 12mo,  1  25. 

17 


SANITARY    SCIENCE. 

Association  of  State  and  National  Food  and  Dairy  Departments,  Hartford 

Meeting,  1906 8vo,  $3  00 

Jamestown  Meeting,  1907 8vo,  3  00 

*  Bashore's  Outlines  of  Practical  Sanitation 12mo,  1  25 

Sanitation  of  a  Country  House 12mo,  1  00 

Sanitation  of  Recreation  Camps  and  Parks 12mo,  1  00 

Folwell's  Sewerage.  (Designing,  Construction,  and  Maintenance.) 8vo,  3  00 

Water-supply  Engineering 8vo,  4  00 

Fowler's  Sewage  Works  Analyses 12mo,  2  00 

Fuertes's  Water-filtration  Works 12mo,  2  50 

Water  and  Public  Health 12mo,  1  50 

•Gerhard's  Guide  to  Sanitary  Inspections 12mo,  1  50 

*  Modern  Baths  and  Bath  Houses 8vo,  3  00 

Sanitation  of  Public  Buildings 12mo,  1  50 

*  The  Water  Supply,  Sewerage,  and  Plumbing  of  Modern  City  Buildings. 

8vo,  4  00 

Hazen's  Clean  Water  and  How  to  Get  It Large  12mo,  1  50 

Filtration  of  Public  Water-supplies 8vo,  3  00 

Kinnicut,  Winslow  and  Pratt's  Purification  of  Sewage.      (In  Preparation.) 
'Leach's  Inspection  and  Analysis  of  Food  with  Special  Reference  to  State 

Control 8vo,  7  50 

Mason's  Examination  of  Water.      (Chemical  and  Bacteriological) 12mo,  1  25 

Water-supply.      (Considered  principally  from  a  Sanitary  Standpoint). 

8vo,  4  00 

*  Merriman's  Elements  of  Sanitary  Engineering 8vo,  2  00 

Ogden's  Sewer  Construction 8vo,  3  00 

Sewer  Design 12mo,  2  00 

Parsons's  Disposal  of  Municipal  Refuse 8vo,  2  00 

Prescott  and  Winslow's  Elements  of  Water  Bacteriology,  with  Special  Refer- 
ence to  Sanitary  Water  Analysis 12mo,  1  50 

*  Price's  Handbook  on  Sanitation 12mo,  1  50 

Richards's  Cost  of  Cleanness ". 12mo,  1  00 

Cost  of  Food.      A  Study  in  Dietaries 12mo,  1  00 

Cost  of  Living  as  Modified  by  Sanitary  Science 12mo,  1  00 

Cost  of  Shelter 12mo,  1  00 

*  Richards  and  Williams's  Dietary  Computer 8vo,  1  50 

Richards  and  Woodman's  Air,  Water,  and  Food  from  a  Sanitary  Stand- 
point  8vo,  2  00 

*  Richey's     Plumbers',     Steam-fitters',    and     Tinners'     Edition     (Building 

Mechanics    Ready  Reference  Series) 16mo,  mor.  1  50 

Rideal's  Disinfection  and  the  Preservation  of  Food 8vo,  4  00 

Sewage  and  Bacterial  Purification  of  Sewage 8vo,  4  00 

Soper's  Air  and  Ventilation  of  Subways 12mo,  2  50 

Turneaure  and  Russell's  Public  Water-supplies 8vo,  5  00 

Venable's  Garbage  Crematories  in  America 8vo,  2  00 

Method  and  Devices  for  Bacterial  Treatment  of  Sewage 8vo,  3  00 

Ward  and  Whipple's  Freshwater  Biology.      (In  Press.) 

Whipple's  Microscopy  of  Drinking-water 8vo,  3  50 

*  Typhoid  Fever Large  12mo,  3  00 

Value  of  Pure  Water Large  12mo,  1  00 

Winslow's  Systematic  Relationship  of  the  Coccacese Large  12mo,  2  50 


MISCELLANEOUS. 

Emmons's  Geological  Guide-book  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  Excursion  of  the 

International  Congress  of  Geologists Large  8vo.  1  50 

Fen-el's  Popular  Treatise  on  the  Winds 8vo,  4  00 

Fitzgerald's  Boston  Machinist 18mo,  1  00 

Gannett's  Statistical  Abstract  of  the  World 24mo,  75 

Haines's  American  Railway  Management 12mo,  2  50 

Hanausek's  The  Microscopy  of  Technical  Products.     (Win ton) 8vo,  5  00 

18 


Jacobs's  Betterment    Briefs.     A    Collection    of    Published    Papers    on    Or- 
ganized Industrial  Efficiency 8vo,  $3  50 

Metcalfe's  Cost  of  Manufactures,  and  the  Administration  of  Workshops.. 8vo,  5  OO 

Putnam's  Nautical  Charts 8vo,  2  00 

Ricketts's  History  of  Rensselaer  Polytechnic  Institute  1824-1894. 

Large  12mo,  3  00 

Rotherham's  Emphasised  New  Testament Large  8vo,  2  00 

Rust's  Ex-Meridian  Altitude,  Azimuth  and  Star-finding  Tables 8vo,  5  00 

Standage's  Decoration  of  Wood,  Glass,  Metal,  etc 12mo,  2  00 

Thome's  Structural  and  Physiological  Botany.      (Bennett) 16mo,  2  25 

Westermaier's  Compendium  of  General  Botany.      (Schneider) 8vo,  2  00 

Winslow's  Elements  of  Applied  Microscopy 12mo,  1  50 


HEBREW   AND    CHALDEE   TEXT-BOOOKS. 

Gesenius's  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  Lexicon  to  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures. 

(Tregelles.) Small  4to,  half  mor,     5  OO 

Green's  Elementary  Hebrew  Grammar 12mo,     1  26- 


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